Overview
The Age of Enlightenment (late 17th–late 18th century) was a period of intellectual and philosophical rejuvenation in Europe. It emphasized reason, empiricism, and scientific progress, building upon the Renaissance's humanism and the Scientific Revolution's empirical methods.
Renaissance & Humanism as Foundation
- Humanism contrasted medieval art's divine elements by valuing reason and human spirit over extravagant ideals
- Inspired by classical antiquity, transforming heavenly themes into natural representations
- Emphasized practicality and restraint, particularly in higher culture
- Reverence for rationale and economy became breakthrough values in European culture
The Age of Enlightenment
- Primarily a grassroots social revolution rather than elite personal model
- Continuation of Scientific Revolution that began mid-16th century
- Politics, science, arts, and social dynamics underwent radical transformation
- Represented Europe's ascent from medieval dogmatism to rational inquiry
Scientific Revolution Foundation
- Scientists like Newton, Galileo, and Boyle advanced mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy
- Highlighted importance of empirical beliefs, calculations, and structured methodology
- Philosophers of Enlightenment carried scientific torch forward into broader cultural domains
Key Philosophical Concepts
- Cartesian Skepticism: Descartes' "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) established doubt as fundamental
- All beliefs subject to investigation by curious, reasonable minds
- Only certainty: existence of thinking entity itself
- Tabula Rasa: John Locke proposed mind starts blank, learning everything through experience
- Empiricism: Sensory experience identified as primary source of knowledge
- David Hume rejected innate ideas, argued humans driven by passion not reason
Spread of Knowledge & Communication
- Printing press arrived in Europe (15th century), ending hand-copied books and restricted education
- Knowledge trickled down from wealthy to masses
- Republic of Letters (17th century): literary figures conducted discourse across borders
- Intellectuals communicated laterally between countries, challenging dogmatic medieval life
- Age of discovery brought contact with Asia, Africa, Americas, diversifying Western perspectives
Political Philosophy
- Separation of Powers: Montesquieu's 1748 work argued for separate legislative, executive, judicial branches
- Forced branches to keep each other in check
- Montesquieu criticized absolutist structures in "The Persian Letters" (1721)
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau criticized urban pretensions, favored practicality over cultural progress
- Voltaire advocated freedom of speech and religion, subordinating church to state
- Denis Diderot declared separation of throne and altar can never be too great
Social Progress & Gender Rights
- Women began participating in salons discussing philosophical concerns
- Marie de Gournay edited Montaigne's essays, contributed to humanities and gender studies
- Anna Maria van Schurman: first woman at Dutch university, fluent in 14 languages
- Bethsuah Macon wrote on reviving ancient education for gentlewomen
- Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia studied with Descartes, versed in multiple disciplines
- Abolition movements formed in Britain, France, Netherlands against slavery
Economic Thought
- Adam Smith birthed modern economics, termed "father of economics" and "father of capitalism"
- "The Wealth of Nations" identified manufacturing, division of labor, specialization, free trade as economic keys
- Recognized gains of free market and self-interest while concerned about potential pitfalls
Major Enlightenment Thinkers
| Name | Contribution | Key Work/Concept |
|---|
| René Descartes | Cartesian skepticism | "Cogito, ergo sum" from "Discourse on the Method" |
| John Locke | Father of liberalism, empiricism | Tabula rasa (blank slate) concept |
| David Hume | Empiricism, passion over reason | "A Treatise of Human Nature" |
| Montesquieu | Separation of powers | "The Spirit of the Laws" (1748) |
| Jean-Jacques Rousseau | Social criticism | Critique of perceived cultural progress |
| Voltaire | Religious freedom | Criticism of Catholic Church |
| Denis Diderot | Church-state separation | Co-founder of "Encyclopédie" |
| Adam Smith | Modern economics | "The Wealth of Nations" |
Key Terms & Definitions
- Humanism: Philosophy valuing reason and human spirit over divine ideals, inspired by classical antiquity
- Empiricism: Belief that sensory experience is primary source of knowledge, not innate ideas
- Cartesian Skepticism: Philosophical position that all beliefs are subject to doubt except thinking entity's existence
- Tabula Rasa: Concept that mind begins as blank slate, learning everything through experience
- Republic of Letters: 17th-century group enabling literary figures to conduct academic discourse across borders
- Separation of Powers: Division of government into legislative, executive, judicial branches to maintain checks and balances