History of American Psychology

Overview

This lecture traces the historical development of psychology in America, from its philosophical and physiological roots to its emergence as a scientific discipline and applied profession. It highlights key individuals, major events, and the field’s impact on society.

Precursors to Psychology

Early influences came from philosophy, especially the work of John Locke and Thomas Reid, who promoted empiricism—the idea that all knowledge comes from experience.
In the early 1800s, American colleges taught mental and moral philosophy, focusing on the faculties of intellect, will, and the senses.
These philosophical foundations emphasized the importance of the human observer and the senses in acquiring knowledge.

Physiology and Psychophysics

In the 19th century, physiological research began to address questions about the mind and sensory systems.
Hermann von Helmholtz measured the speed of neural impulses and studied hearing and vision, showing that senses can be scientifically measured and are not perfect mirrors of reality.
Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner developed psychophysics, introducing methods to measure the relationship between physical stimuli and human perception, laying the groundwork for psychology as a science.
Wilhelm Wundt is credited with formally establishing experimental psychology in 1879, using introspection to study consciousness and demonstrating that the mind could be measured scientifically.

Psychology in the United States

Edward Bradford Titchener, a student of Wundt, brought structuralism to America, focusing on identifying the elements of the mind through introspection.
By 1900, over 40 psychology laboratories existed in the U.S. and Canada, reflecting rapid growth.
The American Psychological Association (APA) was founded in 1892 to organize the field.
Margaret Floy Washburn became the first woman in the U.S. to earn a Ph.D. in psychology (1894) and later served as APA president.
Titchener also founded the Society of Experimental Psychologists, though women were initially excluded.

Functionalism and Expansion

Functionalism, led by William James, G. Stanley Hall, and James McKeen Cattell, emphasized the functions and activities of the mind, influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary theory.
William James argued that consciousness is continuous and adaptive, helping individuals make choices and adapt to their environment. His book, Principles of Psychology (1890), was highly influential.
G. Stanley Hall established the first U.S. psychology lab (1883), founded the American Journal of Psychology (1887), and the APA (1892). He mentored Francis Cecil Sumner, the first African American to earn a psychology Ph.D. in America.
James McKeen Cattell focused on individual differences and mental testing, influenced by Francis Galton. He supported eugenics and believed intelligence could be measured and inherited, shaping early debates on heredity and environment.

Major Movements in Psychology

Gestalt psychology, founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Lewin, argued that the whole of experience is greater than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychologists emphasized holistic processing and influenced later cognitive psychology.
Behaviorism, championed by John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, focused on observable behavior and rejected references to the mind. Influenced by Ivan Pavlov’s work on classical conditioning, behaviorists sought to predict and control behavior through scientific study.
Cognitive psychology emerged in the mid-20th century as psychologists recognized the limitations of behaviorism. Pioneers like Jerome Bruner, Roger Brown, and George Miller studied mental processes such as memory, language, and perception, often using computer science as a model for understanding the mind.

Applied and Professional Psychology

Applied psychology grew rapidly in America, with intelligence testing developed by Alfred Binet in France and adapted in the U.S. by Henry Goddard and Lewis Terman. These tests fueled debates about intelligence, heredity, and environment.
Psychologists applied their knowledge in various settings, including the military, business, industry, and education. Hugo Munsterberg contributed to employee selection, eyewitness testimony, and psychotherapy; Walter D. Scott and Harry Hollingworth studied advertising and marketing; Lillian Gilbreth pioneered industrial and engineering psychology.
Lightner Witmer, trained by Wundt, founded the first psychological clinic in 1896 and is credited as the founder of clinical and school psychology.
As psychology’s roles expanded, professional standards for training and practice were established. The American Association for Applied Psychology (AAAP) was created in the 1930s to represent applied psychologists.
After WWII, the need for mental health professionals led to the merging of the AAAP and APA, and the development of doctoral training programs. The Boulder Conference (1949) established the scientist-practitioner model, while the Vail Conference (1973) introduced the scholar-practitioner model and the Psy.D. degree.

Psychology and Social Change

Psychologists have played important roles in addressing social issues and challenging stereotypes.
Helen Thompson Woolley and Leta S. Hollingworth conducted pioneering research on sex differences, debunking myths about women’s emotionality and cognitive abilities.
Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark studied the negative effects of school segregation on African American children’s self-esteem. Their research influenced the 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which ended school segregation.
The Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi) was founded in 1968 to advocate for issues affecting the African American community.
Evelyn Hooker’s research in the 1950s showed no significant psychological differences between homosexual and heterosexual men, helping to de-pathologize homosexuality and contributing to its removal from the DSM in 1973.
The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI), founded in 1936, has supported research and action on a wide range of social issues.

Key Terms & Definitions

Empiricism — The belief that knowledge comes from experience.
Psychophysics — The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and perception.
Introspection — A method of examining one’s own thoughts and feelings.
Structuralism — A school of psychology focused on identifying the elements of conscious experience.
Functionalism — A school of psychology focused on the functions and utility of consciousness.
Behaviorism — The study of observable behavior, rejecting internal mental processes.
Gestalt psychology — The study of whole experiences, emphasizing that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Cognitive psychology — The study of mental processes such as memory, language, and perception.
Eugenics — The practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits.
Individual differences — Variations among people in behavior, emotion, cognition, and development.
Scientist-practitioner model — A training model combining research and clinical skills.
Scholar-practitioner model — A training model focused on clinical practice.

Action Items / Next Steps

Review the timeline of key dates, events, and figures in the history of psychology.
Reflect on the discussion questions at the end of the module to deepen understanding.
Study the key terms and be able to provide examples for each.
Read more about major psychological perspectives, including structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, and cognitive psychology.
Explore the contributions of women and people of color in the development of American psychology.