Human Anatomy and Physiology Overview for ATITS Exam

Introduction

• Importance of understanding human anatomy for healthcare college and ATITS exam.
• The body systems to be covered: respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, nervous, muscular, reproductive, integumentary, endocrine, urinary, immune, and skeletal.
• 44 questions on the exam, 18 of them are about human anatomy and physiology.

Anatomical Terminology

• Head and Neck Area
  • Cephalic: head
  • Cranial: skull
  • Facial: face
  • Frontal: forehead
  • Occipital: base of the skull
  • Temporal: temple area
  • Orbital/Ocular: eyes
  • Optic: ears
  • Buccal: cheek
  • Nasal: nose
  • Oral: mouth
  • Mental: chin
  • Cervical: neck/cervical spine
• Torso Area
  • Sternal: breast bone
  • Thoracic: chest
  • Mammary: breasts
  • Acromial: shoulder
  • Scapular: shoulder blade
  • Vertebral: spinal column
  • Lumbar: lower back
  • Dorsal: back in general
• Arm and Hand Area
  • Axillary: armpit
  • Brachial: arm
  • Anti-brachial: forearm
  • Carpal: wrist
  • Palmer: palm of hand
  • Polex: thumb
  • Dorsum: back of hand
  • Manual: hand itself
  • Digital/Phalangeal: fingers
• Lower Body Area
  • Abdominal: abdomen
  • Umbilical: navel
  • Cocca: hips
  • Sacral: between hips
  • Coccygeal: tailbone
  • Gluteal: buttocks
  • Pelvic: pelvis
  • Pubic: pubis area
  • Perineal: area between anus and external genitalia
  • Inguinal: groin area
  • Femoral: thigh
  • Patella: front of the knee
  • Popliteal: back of the knee
  • Curial: shin
  • Cyril: calf
  • Pedal: foot
  • Tarsal: ankle
  • Digital/Phalange: toe
  • Pedal: foot
  • Plantar: sole of foot
  • Calcaneal: heel
  • Hallux: big toe

Positional and Directional Terms

• Anatomical Positions
  • Anterior: towards the front
  • Posterior: towards the back
  • Superior: towards the head
  • Inferior: towards the feet
  • Medial: towards the midline
  • Lateral: away from the midline
  • Proximal: closer to the trunk of the body
  • Distal: further away from the trunk of the body
• Directional Planes
  • Sagittal/Median: divides body into right and left halves
  • Frontal/Coronal: divides body into anterior and posterior halves
  • Transverse: divides body into superior and inferior halves

Body Systems Overview

Respiratory System

• Structure

  • Includes: nose, mouth, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
  • Function: Takes in oxygen, releases carbon dioxide

• Respiratory Process

  • Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts and moves downward
  • Oxygen passes from alveoli into blood
  • Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes and moves upward
  • Carbon dioxide released from alveoli
  • Maintains blood pH by removing excess acid (carbon dioxide)

• Conditions Affecting Respiratory System

  • Diseases: Pneumonia, Bronchitis, Asthma
  • Other factors: Mucus buildup, smoking, pollution, dust, allergies, and inflammation

Cardiovascular System

• Structure

  • Heart: Right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle, septum
  • Blood Vessels: Arteries (oxygen-rich), veins (deoxygenated), capillaries (exchange nutrients)
  • Blood: Carries oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, and waste products

• Heart Function

  • Cardiac Cycle: Systole (contraction), Diastole (relaxation)
  • Electrical System: SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers

• Blood Flow

  • Closed system: Pumps oxygenated blood, exchanges gases, deoxygenated blood returns

• Functions

  • Delivers oxygen and nutrients, removes carbon dioxide and waste
  • Maintains blood pressure, body temperature, pH, transports hormones, fights infections, digestion, tissue repair

Digestive System

• Structure

  • GI Tract: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum
  • Accessory Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

• Process of Digestion

  • Begins in the mouth: Chewing, saliva, enzymes
  • Pharynx > Esophagus: Peristalsis moves food
  • Stomach: Stores food, initiates chemical digestion
  • Small Intestine: Main site of digestion and absorption (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
  • Large Intestine: Absorbs water, electrolytes, vitamins
  • Rectum: Stores feces, excretion

• Digestive Enzymes and Hormones

  • Gastrin: Produced by stomach, stimulates stomach acid
  • CCK (Cholecystokinin): Produced by small intestine, releases enzymes and bile
  • Secretin: Produced by small intestine, stimulates bicarbonate
  • Insulin: Regulates blood sugar
  • Glucagon: Releases glucose
  • Bile: Produced by liver, breaks down fats

Nervous System

• Components

  • Central Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord
  • Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves branching off from spinal cord

• Neurons

  • Structure: Cell body, dendrites, axon
  • Types: Sensory (afferent), Motor (efferent)
  • Voluntary (somatic) vs. Involuntary (autonomic) actions
  • Involuntary: Heart rate, digestion, respiration
  • Voluntary: Limb movements

Muscular System

• Types of Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal: Attached to bones, voluntary
  • Cardiac: Found in heart, involuntary
  • Smooth: Walls of internal organs, involuntary

• Function

  • Movement of body
  • Nerve-Muscle Coordination: Nerves send signals, muscles contract

Reproductive System

• Male Structures

  • Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis

• Female Structures

  • Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva

• Hormones

  • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone, estrogen, progesterone

Integumentary System

• Structure

  • Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands
  • Layers of Skin: Epidermis (outer), Dermis (middle), Subcutaneous/Hypodermis (inner)

• Function

  • Protection: UV rays, water loss, infection
  • Excretion: Sweat glands, regulate body temperature
  • Sensation: Nerve endings, touch, pressure, heat, cold

• Homeostasis

  • Regulates body temperature and fluid balance
  • Blood vessels dilate or constrict

Endocrine System

• Components

  • Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, testes
  • Hormones: Growth hormone, thyroxine, calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, thymosin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, insulin, glucagon, testosterone

• Functions

  • Growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, mood regulation

• Hormone Structures

  • Lipid-Based: Cholesterol (testosterone, estrogen)
  • Nonpolar Fat Soluble: Amino acids (thyroid hormones)
  • Water Soluble: Amino acids (epinephrine)

• Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies change (oxytocin during childbirth)
  • Negative Feedback: Reverses change (insulin for high blood sugar)

Urinary System

• Structure

  • Components: Kidneys, renal cortex, renal medulla, ureters, bladder, urethra

• Function

  • Filter blood, produce urine, maintain homeostasis
  • Nephron: Filtration unit

• Cardiovascular Relationship

  • Transports blood to kidneys, excretes waste, regulates blood pressure, produces hormone erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production)

Immune System

• Components

  • Innate Defense: Physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes), chemical barriers (enzymes, stomach acids)
  • Adaptive Defense: Lymphatic system, white blood cells, antibodies

• Function

  • Recognize and destroy foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses)
  • Inflammatory Response: Blood vessels dilate, white blood cells sent to infection area
  • Adaptive Defense System: Helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, antibodies, antigen-presenting cells

• Types of Immunity

  • Passive Immunity: Antibodies from another individual (mother to child)
  • Active Immunity: Body produces its own antibodies (longer-lasting)

Skeletal System

• Types of Bones

  • Long: Arms, legs (humerus, femur)
  • Short: Wrists, ankles (carpals, tarsals)
  • Flat: Ribs, sternum, shoulder blades
  • Irregular: Spine (vertebrae)

• Bone Structure

  • Compact Bone: Hard outer layer, protection and support
  • Spongy Bone: Porous, lightweight, ends of long bones, vertebrae
  • Cancellous Bone: Spongy bone with cavities
  • Trabecular Bone: Honeycomb-like structure
  • Bone Marrow: Soft tissue, blood cell production

• Muscle System Relationship

  • Muscles connect to bones with tendons
  • Nervous system communication, muscle contractions

Summary

• Each body system has distinct structures and functions
• Understanding these systems is crucial for healthcare education and passing the ATITS exam.