Overview
Marcus Garvey (1887–1940) founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and led the largest black movement in history, advocating for African unity, black pride, and economic independence. Though controversial and eventually deported, his vision influenced generations of civil rights leaders and Pan-African movements worldwide.
Early Life and Formation
- Born August 1887 in St. Anne's Bay, Jamaica; father was a former slave and stubborn, withdrawn man
- Mother Sarah Jane Richards worked as cook for white families; called him "Moses" and believed he would do great things
- Experienced racism at age 14 when white friend Joyce Reary was forbidden from speaking to him
- Left school at 14, became master printer; learned power of controlling written word through journalism
- 1910: Traveled Central America, witnessed black workers' economic power but lack of unity and political control
- 1914: Read Booker T. Washington's Up From Slavery; resolved to unify scattered black people globally
- Founded UNIA in Jamaica with Amy Ashwood (August 1914) with motto "One God, One Aim, One Destiny"
Arrival in America and Growth (1916–1920)
- Arrived New York City spring 1916 after Jamaica ventures failed; found lodging in Harlem
- First U.S. speech (1916) was disaster—fell off stage, but studied white evangelist Billy Sunday's speaking style
- July 1917: East St. Louis race riots killed 39 whites and hundreds of blacks; Garvey denounced conspiracy
- September 1917: Opened first American UNIA division; criticized established black leaders as too passive
- Told black Americans their history began before slavery; Africa's glorious past belonged to them too
- UNIA membership cost 35 cents plus photograph; offered uniforms, titles, and sense of pride to working-class members
- Created African Legion (men), Juvenile Division (youth), Black Cross Nurses and Universal Motor Corps (women)
- Designed red, black, and green flag as symbol of black nation-building efforts
UNIA Enterprises and Black Star Line
- Summer 1918: Purchased unfinished church building for headquarters, named Liberty Hall; started Negro World newspaper
- Created Negro Factories Corporation financed by small contributions from followers; employed up to 1,000 in Harlem
- Businesses included laundries, restaurants, newspapers—most struggled due to inexperienced managers and poor financial management
- October 1919: Disgruntled investor George Tyler shot Garvey; Amy Ashwood threw herself between them; Garvey survived, gained quasi-religious significance
- 1919: Launched Black Star Line steamship company; sold stock for $5 per share to create all-black commercial fleet
- November 1919: Purchased SS Yarmouth (33-year-old coal boat) for first ship with all-black crew
- Paid six times ship's actual worth due to betrayal by inspector and captain; quickly spent $200,000 on two more ships
- Ships plagued by mismanagement—captains went off course, had breakdowns, equipment sabotaged by government agents
Government Persecution and Trial
- J. Edgar Hoover labeled Garvey "notorious Negro agitator" and threat to national security
- Hoover hired first full-time black FBI agent (code number 800) to infiltrate UNIA and build legal case
- British government feared Garvey's message would spread revolution in African colonies; Negro World banned in many countries
- 1922: Garvey met with KKK Grand Wizard Edward Young Clark; viewed by black critics as complete betrayal
- January 1922: Arrested with three UNIA officers for federal mail fraud over Black Star Line stock brochure
- Trial began May 18, 1923; Garvey fired attorney and defended himself—"disaster" of poor courtroom performance
- Convicted of defrauding Benny Dancy of $25; received maximum sentence of five years in prison
- February 1925: Entered Atlanta Federal Penitentiary as prisoner #19359 with only $40 and worthless stock
Deportation and Final Years
- Imprisoned 1925–1927; supporters raised funds, collected millions of petition signatures worldwide for his release
- November 18, 1927: Pardoned by President Coolidge after serving two years nine months but immediately deported
- Sailed from New Orleans on SS Saramaca; thousands gathered to see him leave; sang hymns as ship departed
- Returned to Jamaica to hero's welcome; married Amy Jakes Garvey (1922), had two sons
- Tried elective office, real estate, amusement park, newspaper—all failed; declared bankruptcy when courts seized UNIA property
- 1935: Relocated to London; continued speaking and publishing but following dwindled to small band
- Suffered strokes in January and June 1940; died June 10, 1940 after reading premature obituary declaring him forgotten
UNIA Organizations and Structure
| Organization | Purpose | Role |
|---|
| African Legion | Military-style organization for men | Marched in parades with uniforms; provided security and pride |
| Black Cross Nurses | Women's auxiliary modeled on Red Cross | First aid training, visited sick, operated food banks, recruited members |
| Universal Motor Corps | Women's transportation unit | Transportation and logistics; wore distinctive uniforms |
| Juvenile Division | Youth organization | Trained next generation in Garvey's philosophy |
| Negro Factories Corporation | Economic development | Funded UNIA businesses through small contributions from followers |
| Negro World | Weekly newspaper | Published in Spanish, French, English; carried essays, poetry, history, editorials |
Key Concepts and Philosophy
- Africa for the Africans: Slogan demanding return of African colonies to black control; spread globally through UNIA chapters
- Black pride and self-sufficiency: Taught that black people should own businesses, control communities, write own history
- Race first philosophy: Rejected integration; believed white people could not represent best interests of black people
- Back to Africa movement: Not literal relocation but psychological/cultural reclamation of African identity and heritage
- Economic independence: Created separate economy of black-owned businesses funded by ordinary working people
- Provisional President of Africa: Garvey named himself leader of government-in-exile at 1920 International Convention
- Declaration of Rights: 1920 document calling for international respect for black people's rights worldwide
Legacy and Influence
- Influenced Pan-African leaders: Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Steve Biko (South Africa)
- Earl and Louise Little (Malcolm X's parents) were fervent Garveyites; raised children with race pride philosophy
- Malcolm X inherited Garvey's black nationalism through parents and Nation of Islam teachings
- Rastafarian movement preserved Garvey's memory in Jamaica; viewed him as prophet heralding Haile Selassie
- Bob Marley promoted Garvey's ideology through reggae music in 1960s–1970s
- J. Edgar Hoover developed FBI surveillance tactics targeting Garvey; later used against civil rights leaders
- COINTELPRO operations against Black Panthers and others traced to methods developed during Garvey investigation
- Harlem Renaissance writers published in Negro World; movement provided political backdrop for black artistic expression
- 1960s Black Power movement revived interest: "Black is Beautiful" slogan had roots in Garveyism
- Amy Jakes Garvey kept legacy alive after 1940 death; published Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey
Key Terms and Definitions
- UNIA: Universal Negro Improvement Association—international black nationalist organization with 500+ divisions in 22 countries
- Liberty Hall: UNIA headquarters in Harlem; venue for rallies, cultural events, community gatherings
- Red, Black, and Green Flag: Symbol Garvey designed for black nation; red for blood, black for people, green for land
- Black Star Line: Shipping corporation meant to link black communities worldwide through commercial trade
- Master printer: Skilled printing profession Garvey learned at age 14; gave him control over written word
- Provisional President: Title Garvey gave himself as leader of government-in-exile for Africa
- Negro World: UNIA weekly newspaper with circulation in multiple languages; most popular black newspaper of era
- Jim Crow: System of racial segregation laws in American South; forced blacks to defer to whites in public spaces
Impact on Individuals
- Jacob Samuel Mills: St. Kitts carpenter barred from white union, worked as janitor; became UNIA captain, marched proudly in uniform
- Amy Ashwood: Co-founded UNIA in Jamaica; saved Garvey's life in 1919 shooting; marriage lasted four months
- Amy Jakes Garvey: Second wife (married 1922); served as secretary, edited women's page, published Garvey's writings after death
- George Tyler: Disgruntled investor who shot Garvey in 1919 over financial disputes
- Joshua Coburn: Black Star Line captain who convinced Garvey to overpay for ships and took kickbacks
- W.E.B. Du Bois and A. Philip Randolph: Black leaders who opposed Garvey; called for his deportation as "dangerous enemy"
Key Dates
- 1887: Born in St. Anne's Bay, Jamaica
- 1910: Traveled Central America; witnessed black workers' powerlessness
- 1914: Founded UNIA in Jamaica with Amy Ashwood
- 1916: Arrived in New York City; began building American UNIA
- 1917: East St. Louis riots; Garvey opened first U.S. UNIA division
- 1919: Launched Black Star Line; shot by George Tyler; claimed 750,000+ followers
- 1920: International Convention; parade with 100,000 participants; named self Provisional President of Africa
- 1922: Arrested for mail fraud; met with KKK leader
- 1923: Convicted of mail fraud; received five-year sentence
- 1925: Imprisoned in Atlanta Federal Penitentiary
- 1927: Pardoned but deported to Jamaica
- 1940: Died in London on June 10 after two strokes