Overview
This lecture provides an extensive glossary of key concepts, terms, and theories in psychology, organized alphabetically. It serves as a foundational reference for understanding major ideas, research methods, and terminology in the field.
Major Psychological Concepts
- Core theories include classical conditioning (learning through association), operant conditioning (learning through consequences), and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (motivation based on fulfilling basic to higher-level needs).
- Psychological disorders are categorized into mood, anxiety, personality, and psychotic disorders, each with specific symptoms and diagnostic criteria.
- Neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and GABA are essential for regulating behavior, mood, memory, and cognition.
- Concepts like schemas (mental models for organizing information), archetypes (universal images or thoughts), and defense mechanisms (behaviors that protect from anxiety) are central to understanding personality and behavior.
Research Methods & Measurement
- Common research designs include experiments (manipulating variables to determine cause and effect), case studies (in-depth analysis of individuals), surveys (collecting data from groups), and naturalistic observation (observing behavior in natural settings).
- Key experimental terms:
- Independent variable: manipulated by the researcher
- Dependent variable: measured outcome
- Control group: does not receive the experimental treatment
- Random assignment: subjects have equal chance of being in any group
- Double-blind procedure: neither participants nor experimenters know group assignments
- Psychological testing relies on:
- Reliability: consistency of results over time or across forms
- Validity: accuracy in measuring what is intended
- Standardization: uniform procedures for administering and scoring tests
- Norms: data for comparing individual scores to a larger group
Memory & Cognition
- Memory systems include:
- Sensory memory: brief storage of sensory information
- Short-term memory: limited, temporary storage
- Long-term memory: permanent, unlimited storage
- Declarative memory: facts and information (explicit)
- Episodic memory: personal experiences
- Procedural memory: how to perform tasks (often implicit)
- Semantic memory: general knowledge
- Working memory: active processing and manipulation of information
- Cognitive processes involve:
- Encoding: putting information into memory
- Storage: maintaining information
- Retrieval: accessing stored information
- Decision-making and problem solving: weighing alternatives and finding solutions
- Heuristics: mental shortcuts for quick judgments
- Memory phenomena:
- Interference: new or old information disrupts recall
- Forgetting curve: decline of memory over time
- False memories and confabulation: remembering events inaccurately
- Mnemonics: strategies to improve memory (e.g., chunking, method of loci, acronyms)
Biological Basis of Behavior
- The nervous system is divided into:
- Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS): somatic (voluntary control) and autonomic (involuntary control) subsystems
- Major brain structures:
- Cerebrum: higher thought and learning
- Cerebellum: balance and coordination
- Limbic system: emotion and memory (includes amygdala and hippocampus)
- Hypothalamus: regulates drives and controls the pituitary gland
- The endocrine system communicates through hormones, affecting growth, metabolism, stress, and other bodily functions.
- Neurons transmit signals via neurotransmitters; glial cells support and protect neurons.
- Biological rhythms (circadian, ultradian, infradian) regulate cycles like sleep and alertness.
Developmental Psychology
- Human development spans from prenatal stages (zygote, embryo, fetus) through adulthood, involving changes in motor skills, cognition, identity, and attachment.
- Key developmental concepts:
- Attachment: bond between infants and caregivers
- Attachment styles: secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant
- Cognitive development: stages and milestones such as object permanence, conservation, egocentrism, and moral reasoning
- Maturation: genetically programmed growth
- Developmental norms: typical ages for acquiring skills
Social Psychology
- Major concepts include:
- Conformity: yielding to group pressure
- Obedience: following authority
- Groupthink: prioritizing consensus over critical thinking
- Stereotypes: beliefs about groups
- Prejudice: negative attitudes toward groups
- Attitudes: evaluations of people, objects, or ideas
- Bystander effect: less likely to help when others are present
- Attribution theory explains how people infer the causes of behavior, distinguishing between internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions.
- Social influence includes phenomena like social facilitation, social loafing, and group polarization.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Operant Conditioning: Learning in which behavior is shaped by reinforcement or punishment.
- Classical Conditioning: Learning by associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.
- Cognition: Mental processes such as thinking, understanding, problem solving, and decision making.
- Schema: A mental framework for organizing and interpreting information.
- Personality: The consistent set of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that define an individual.
- Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger that transmits signals between neurons.
- Reliability: The consistency of a test or measurement across time or forms.
- Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
- Heuristic: A rule-of-thumb strategy for making judgments or solving problems.
- Attachment: The emotional bond between a child and caregiver.
- Defense Mechanism: Unconscious behaviors that protect against anxiety.
- Standardization: Using uniform procedures for test administration and scoring.
- Random Assignment: Placing subjects into groups by chance to reduce bias.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review and memorize key terms and definitions for upcoming assessments.
- Practice applying major psychological theories (conditioning, cognitive development, attribution) to real-life scenarios.
- Complete assigned textbook readings on foundational psychology concepts.
- Use mnemonics and other memory strategies to reinforce learning.
- Engage in self-testing and group discussions to deepen understanding of core concepts.