Overview
This lecture introduces key methods in the philosophy of science, focusing on how scientific knowledge is generated and the relationship between observation, theory, and confirmation.
Philosophy of Science & Scientific Method
- Science has advanced by generating and testing theories through observations.
- The scientific method seeks to explain how science achieves reliable knowledge and practical results.
Types of Inference
- Deductive inference: The conclusion is guaranteed by true premises; no new information is added (non-ampliative).
- Inductive inference: The conclusion goes beyond the premises, generalizing from observed cases (ampliative).
- Induction allows learning new facts about the world, unlike deduction.
Forms of Inductive Reasoning
- Enumerative induction: Generalizes from all observed cases to all cases (e.g., "All observed swans are white, so all swans are white").
- Inference to the best explanation (abduction): Accepts the explanation best accounting for observed phenomena (e.g., asteroid impact causing dinosaur extinction).
Naive Inductivism
- Associated with Francis Bacon, involving three steps:
- Observe and record as many facts as possible, ideally without bias.
- Classify the collected facts into coherent groups.
- Draw generalizations from these observed and classified facts.
- Emphasizes starting without preconceived theories for objective science.
Bacon’s "Idols of the Mind" (Sources of Bias)
- Idols of the Tribe: Human tendency to see more order in nature than exists.
- Idols of the Cave: Individual biases from personal experiences and preferences.
- Idols of the Market: Confusion from ambiguous language.
- Idols of the Theater: Attachment to dogmatic theories or systems.
Critiques of Naive Inductivism
- Impossible to collect every fact; relevance requires prior hypothesis.
- Data classification is only meaningful given a guiding theory.
- Not all observations are trustworthy; judging them uses prior theoretical knowledge.
- Theoretical terms in science (like "neutron") cannot be directly derived from observation alone.
- Theories are invented, not mechanically derived from observation.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Deduction — Reasoning where the conclusion necessarily follows from true premises.
- Induction — Reasoning that generalizes beyond observed evidence; conclusion is probable, not certain.
- Abduction (Inference to the Best Explanation) — Choosing the hypothesis that best explains the observed facts.
- Naive Inductivism — Method of building science by unbiased observation and inductive generalization.
- Idols of the Mind — Bacon's categories of cognitive biases in reasoning.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Read KL Hempel’s "Philosophy of Natural Science" regarding critique of naive inductivism.
- Next lecture will cover the hypothetico-deductive method.