Module 1: Atoms and Atomic Structure

Essential Elements

• Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Hydrogen
  • Comprise all living things in large quantities
• Trace Elements
  • Make up mass in the human body

Atomic Composition

• All matter is composed of atoms
• Subatomic particles include:
  • Protons: positively charged, located in the nucleus
  • Neutrons: neutral, located in the nucleus
  • Electrons: negatively charged, orbit outside the nucleus
• Atoms form elements, which make up molecules
• Valence Electrons and the Octet Rule
  • First electron shell holds 2 electrons, outer shells hold 8
  • Atoms achieve stability via chemical bonds by losing, gaining, or sharing electrons

Chemical Bonds

• Hydrogen Bonds and Van der Waals Interactions
  • Held by attractive forces
• Electronegativity: Atom's tendency to attract electrons
• Polar and Nonpolar Bonds
  • Nonpolar: electronegativity difference ≤ 0.5
  • Polar: 0.5 < difference < 2
  • Ionic: difference ≥ 2

Water Properties

• Moderates temperature, ice floats, cohesion, adhesion
• Acts as a solvent due to hydrogen bonds
• pH and Buffers
  • Water self-ionizes: 2H₂O ⇄ H₃O⁺ + OH⁻
  • pH = -log[H⁺]

Carbon and Molecular Structures

• Carbon's neutral electronegativity allows it to form four covalent bonds
• Can create rings and isomers (structural, geometric, enantiomers)

Module 2: Biological Macromolecules

Formation

• Macromolecules formed by dehydration reactions
• Hydrolysis: breaks bonds by adding water

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides: Basic unit (3, 5, or 6 carbons)
  • Includes glucose, galactose, fructose
• Disaccharides: Two linked monosaccharides (sucrose)
• Polysaccharides: Long chains (cellulose, starch)

Lipids

• Not polymers, contain C—C and C—H bonds
• Functions: energy storage, insulation, cell membrane

Proteins

• Composed of amino acids, have 20 types
• Structure Levels:
  • Primary: Sequence of amino acids
  • Secondary: α-helix and β-pleated sheet
  • Tertiary: 3D shape formed by interactions
  • Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains

Module 3: Cellular Respiration

Overview

• Converts glucose into ATP
• Stages include glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

Fermentation

• Occurs in absence of oxygen
• Produces ATP via glycolysis

Regulation

• Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation have checkpoints

Module 4: Cell Structure

Cell Theory

• All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material, and ribosomes
• Types: Prokaryotes (no nucleus) and Eukaryotes (nucleus)

Organelles

• Nucleus: Contains DNA
• Mitochondria: Produces energy (ATP)
• Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis in plants
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Protein and lipid processing
• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins

Module 5: Metabolism

Thermodynamics

• 1st Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed
• 2nd Law: Energy transformations increase entropy

Enzymes

• Catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy

Module 6: Cellular Respiration

Stages

• Glycolysis: Breaks down glucose into pyruvate
• Citric Acid Cycle: Completes glucose breakdown
• Oxidative Phosphorylation: Produces most ATP

Fermentation

• Occurs without oxygen, produces lactate or ethanol

Module 7: Mitosis

Cell Cycle

• Stages: G₀, G₁, S, G₂, M

Mitosis Stages

• Prophase: Chromatin condenses
• Metaphase: Chromosomes align
• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate
• Telophase: New nuclei form

Checkpoints

• Ensure proper division and DNA replication

Module 8: Genetic Inheritance

Mendel's Laws

• Law of Segregation: Each gamete receives one allele
• Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes assort independently

Non-Mendelian Genetics

• Incomplete dominance, co-dominance, epistasis

Module 9: DNA Structure and Replication

Semiconservative Replication

• Each new DNA molecule contains one old and one new strand

DNA Repair

• Mechanisms include proofreading and mismatch repair

Module 10: Gene Expression

Central Dogma

• DNA → RNA → Protein

Transcription and Translation

• Transcription: DNA to RNA
• Translation: RNA to protein

Regulation

• Controlled by operons in prokaryotes, transcription factors in eukaryotes

Module 11: Evolution

Theory

• Natural selection, adaptation

Speciation

• Allopatric: Geographic separation
• Sympatric: Reproductive isolation

Human Evolution

• Common ancestry with primates