Overview
This lecture covered the administrations of George Washington and John Adams, focusing on the establishment of U.S. government institutions, the rise of political parties, financial and economic policies, foreign relations, conflicts with Native Americans, and major legislative controversies from 1789 to 1800.
Washington’s Presidency & Precedents
- George Washington became the first U.S. president in 1789, unanimously elected and setting important precedents for future leaders.
- He established the two-term tradition for presidents, which was followed until Franklin Roosevelt and later made law.
- Washington created the first presidential cabinet, appointing:
- Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State (later leader of the opposition party)
- Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury (key architect of economic policy)
- Henry Knox as Secretary of War
- The Judiciary Act of 1789 organized the Supreme Court (with Chief Justice John Jay and five associate justices) and set up the lower federal court system.
- The Bill of Rights, written mainly by James Madison, was added to the Constitution to address Anti-Federalist concerns about government power. These first 10 amendments protect individual liberties (e.g., freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and protection against unreasonable searches) and limit federal authority.
Hamilton’s Financial Plan
- Alexander Hamilton, as Secretary of the Treasury, developed a comprehensive financial program to stabilize the economy and promote American manufacturing.
- The Assumption Plan called for the federal government to pay off national and state war debts at face value, increasing federal power. This was controversial but passed after a compromise with Jefferson, who agreed in exchange for moving the capital to Washington, D.C.
- Hamilton’s plan also included:
- High tariffs (taxes on imports) to protect American industries from foreign competition.
- Excise taxes on specific goods, notably whiskey, to raise revenue for the government.
- The creation of the Bank of the United States was a central part of Hamilton’s plan, intended to provide a stable currency and manage government funds. This sparked a major debate:
- Jefferson and his supporters argued for a strict interpretation of the Constitution, claiming Congress lacked authority to create a bank.
- Hamilton and the Federalists favored a loose (broad) interpretation, citing the “necessary and proper” (elastic) clause to justify the bank’s creation.
Emergence of Political Parties
- The 1790s saw the rise of the first party system, despite the Constitution not mentioning political parties.
- Federalists, led by Hamilton:
- Supported a manufacturing and industrial economy.
- Advocated for a strong central government and a loose interpretation of the Constitution.
- Drew support from the wealthy, merchants, and urban areas, especially in the Northeast.
- Were generally pro-British in foreign policy.
- Jeffersonian Republicans, led by Jefferson:
- Favored an agrarian society and believed farmers were the backbone of the nation.
- Supported states’ rights and a strict interpretation of the Constitution.
- Had strong support in the South and West, among rural populations.
- Were generally pro-French, especially during the French Revolution.
Domestic Challenges
- The Whiskey Rebellion (1794) arose when Western Pennsylvania farmers protested the excise tax on whiskey, seeing it as an attack on their liberties.
- Washington responded by leading a militia force of about 15,000 to suppress the rebellion, demonstrating the strength and authority of the new federal government.
- The government’s decisive action reassured supporters but alarmed critics like Jefferson, who saw it as federal overreach.
Foreign Policy Issues
- The French Revolution and subsequent wars in Europe divided Americans over whether to support France or England.
- Washington issued the Proclamation of Neutrality (1793), declaring the U.S. neutral in European conflicts.
- The Citizen GenĂŞt Affair tested this neutrality, as a French envoy tried to rally American support for France, violating diplomatic norms.
- Jay’s Treaty (1794) with Britain:
- Britain agreed to evacuate forts in the Northwest Territory but did not address the seizure of American ships or British support for Native Americans.
- The treaty was unpopular with Jeffersonian Republicans but kept the U.S. out of war.
- Pinckney’s Treaty (1795) with Spain:
- Secured American navigation rights on the Mississippi River and the right of deposit at New Orleans, crucial for western farmers.
- Established the northern boundary of Florida at the 31st parallel.
Native American Relations
- U.S. westward expansion led to conflict with Native American tribes in the Northwest Confederacy, who resisted encroachment on their lands.
- Native resistance, led by Miami Chief Little Turtle and supported by British weapons, was defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) by General Anthony Wayne.
- The Treaty of Greenville (1795) forced Native tribes to cede claims to the Ohio Territory, opening it to American settlement.
Washington’s Farewell & Adams’s Presidency
- Washington chose not to seek a third term, setting a precedent for future presidents.
- In his Farewell Address (1796), published in newspapers, he warned against:
- Permanent foreign alliances, urging the U.S. to avoid entanglement in European affairs.
- The dangers of political parties and factions, encouraging national unity.
- In the election of 1796, John Adams (Federalist) narrowly defeated Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican), who became vice president under the original electoral rules. This system was later changed by the 12th Amendment.
Adams Administration: Foreign & Domestic Crises
- The XYZ Affair (1797) involved French officials demanding bribes from American diplomats before negotiations, leading to widespread anti-French sentiment in the U.S. and the slogan “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute.”
- Although there was strong public support for war, Adams avoided a full-scale conflict, resulting instead in an undeclared naval “Quasi-War” with France, mostly in the West Indies. The Convention of 1800 ended the alliance with France and avoided further war.
- The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress, aimed to suppress Democratic-Republican opposition by:
- Increasing the residency requirement for citizenship (Naturalization Act).
- Allowing the president to deport or arrest immigrants deemed dangerous (Alien Act).
- Making it illegal to criticize the government (Sedition Act), targeting newspapers and political opponents.
- These acts were justified as security measures but were widely seen as political tools that violated First Amendment rights.
- The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, written secretly by Jefferson and Madison, argued that states could nullify (ignore) federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, based on the compact theory that states had formed the national government and retained the right to judge its actions. This idea of nullification would resurface in later conflicts over federal authority.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Cabinet — Group of presidential advisors heading executive departments.
- Assumption Plan — Federal government’s takeover of state war debts.
- Tariff — Tax on imported goods to protect domestic industry.
- Excise Tax — Tax on specific domestic products, such as whiskey.
- Strict Interpretation — Belief that the government can only do what the Constitution explicitly states.
- Loose Interpretation — Belief that the government can take actions not specifically forbidden by the Constitution.
- Nullification — Idea that states can void or ignore unconstitutional federal laws.
- Alien and Sedition Acts — Laws restricting speech and immigrant rights, aimed at political opponents.
- Compact Theory — Concept that states form the national government and can judge its constitutionality.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review the differences between Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans, including their economic visions and constitutional interpretations.
- Read and outline the Bill of Rights and key amendments to understand protections for individual liberties.
- Study the major treaties (Jay’s, Pinckney’s, Greenville) and their impacts on U.S. foreign relations and territorial expansion.
- Understand the causes, provisions, and implications of the Alien and Sedition Acts, as well as the arguments for and against nullification.