Jefferson's Presidency and Key Policies

I. Republicans in Power, 1801-1815

A. Jefferson’s First Term, 1801-1805

1. Reorientation of Government

• Jefferson described his election as the "Revolution of 1800," but changes were moderate and peaceful.
• a. Limited and Efficient
  • Reduced the size and scope of the federal government.
  • Cut the army, navy, and diplomatic corps to save money.
  • Eliminated all internal taxes; government revenue came from land sales and tariffs.
• b. Increase in Civil Liberties
  • Allowed the Sedition Act to expire.
  • Pardoned those jailed under the Sedition Act and repaid fines.

2. Struggle with the Federal Judiciary

• Republicans were frustrated with Federalist judges, especially for their support of the Sedition Act and partisan behavior from the bench.

3. Judiciary Act of 1801

• Passed by Federalists after losing the 1800 election to maintain influence.
• a. Changes to Supreme Court
  • Reduced the number of Supreme Court justices from six to five upon the next vacancy, limiting Jefferson’s ability to appoint new justices.
• b. Midnight Appointees
  • Created new federal judgeships, filled by Federalists in the final days of Adams’s presidency.

4. John Marshall

• Appointed Chief Justice by Adams just before Jefferson took office.
• A strong Federalist and political opponent of Jefferson, Marshall served as Chief Justice until 1835.

5. Marbury v. Madison, 1803

• a. The Case
  • William Marbury, a midnight appointee, sued Secretary of State James Madison for failing to deliver his commission.
• b. The Decision
  • Chief Justice Marshall ruled Marbury deserved his commission but the Supreme Court lacked the constitutional authority to issue it.
• c. Setting up Judicial Review
  • The decision declared part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional, establishing the Supreme Court’s power of judicial review.

6. Louisiana Purchase, 1803

• a. Background
  • Control of Louisiana and the Mississippi River was vital for U.S. trade and security.
  • The territory was transferred from Spain back to France under Napoleon, raising U.S. concerns.
• b. Negotiations
  • Jefferson sent Robert Livingston and James Monroe to France to buy New Orleans for up to $5 million.
  • Napoleon, needing money for war, offered all of Louisiana for $15 million.
• c. Constitutional Questions
  • Jefferson, a strict constructionist, struggled with the lack of constitutional authority for land purchases.
  • He justified the purchase as part of the president’s treaty-making power.
• d. Significance
  • The purchase doubled the size of the U.S. at a bargain price, securing control of the Mississippi River.
• e. Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806
  • Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the new territory.
  • The expedition mapped the region, documented resources, and encouraged westward expansion.

7. Election of 1804

• a. Landslide Victory
  • Jefferson was reelected by a wide margin, reflecting his popularity after a successful first term.
• b. Hamilton/Burr Duel
  • Vice President Aaron Burr, dropped from the ticket, ran for New York governor as a Federalist but lost.
  • After a political dispute, Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel, damaging his reputation.

B. Jefferson’s Second Term: Avoiding War, 1805-1809

1. Problems with Britain and France

• Renewed war in Europe threatened U.S. neutrality.
• a. Broken Voyage
  • American merchants used the "broken voyage" loophole to trade with French colonies, angering Britain.
• b. Britain’s Response
  • Britain outlawed the broken voyage and stationed warships outside U.S. ports, seizing American ships.
• c. Impressment
  • The British navy forcibly recruited sailors, including Americans, from U.S. ships.
• d. Chesapeake Affair, 1807
  • A British warship attacked the U.S.S. Chesapeake, killing and impressing sailors, causing public outrage.

2. Embargo Act of 1807

• Jefferson responded by banning all U.S. exports to foreign ports to pressure Britain and France.
• a. Problems with enforcement
  • The embargo severely hurt the U.S. economy and was widely evaded through smuggling.
  • Jefferson was forced to use the navy to enforce the law, contradicting his limited government ideals.
• b. Repeal
  • The embargo was ultimately unsuccessful and unpopular, leading to its repeal.

3. Election of 1808

• Jefferson honored the two-term tradition and did not run again.
• James Madison, his close ally, was elected president, though Federalists gained ground due to the embargo’s unpopularity.

C. Drifting into War, 1809-1812

1. Continuing Economic Coercion

• The U.S. continued to use economic measures to pressure Britain, but relations worsened.

2. The “Warhawks”

• A new group in Congress, known as the Warhawks, began pushing for war with Britain.

3. Problems in the West: Tippecanoe

• a. Background
  • Tensions grew between American settlers and Native Americans in the Northwest.
• b. Tecumseh
  • Shawnee leader Tecumseh sought to unite tribes against U.S. expansion.
• c. William Henry Harrison
  • Governor of Indiana Territory, Harrison opposed Tecumseh’s confederation.
• d. Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811
  • Harrison’s forces defeated Native Americans at Tippecanoe, increasing tensions on the frontier.