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Which serological markers are positive during the recovery phase of HBV infection?
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During recovery, anti-HBs and anti-HBc IgG are positive, while HBsAg, HBeAg, and HBV DNA are negative.
In which phase of HBV infection are both HBsAg and anti-HBs negative but anti-HBc is positive?
This serological pattern is seen in the 'window period' of HBV infection.
What does a positive HBeAg suggest about the Hepatitis B virus infection?
A positive HBeAg indicates increased replication and infectivity of the Hepatitis B virus.
What is the risk associated with Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection during pregnancy?
HEV infection during pregnancy significantly increases the risk of fulminant hepatitis and death.
What is the initial serological test for Hepatitis C virus (HCV)?
The initial serological test for HCV is the detection of anti-HCV antibodies (IgG).
How is ongoing HCV infection confirmed after a positive anti-HCV antibody test?
Ongoing HCV infection is confirmed by detecting HCV RNA using PCR.
What does a positive result for HBsAg indicate in the context of Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection?
A positive result for HBsAg indicates an active HBV infection, which can be acute or chronic.
Describe the serological profile of an individual immunized against HBV.
An immunized individual will have positive anti-HBs but negative HBsAg, HBeAg, HBV DNA, and anti-HBc.
Why is HBcAg not measured directly in HBV serology?
HBcAg is not measured directly because it is an intracellular antigen; instead, antibodies against HBcAg (anti-HBc) are measured.
Which serological markers indicate a past exposure or immunization to HAV?
A past exposure or immunization to HAV is indicated by negative HAV RNA and positive anti-HAV IgG.
What is the significance of a positive HBV DNA test?
A positive HBV DNA test indicates active replication of HBV and high infectivity.
What does an APRI score greater than 1.5 indicate in the context of HCV?
An APRI score greater than 1.5 indicates significant liver fibrosis.
Differentiate between the presence of anti-HBc IgM and anti-HBc IgG.
Anti-HBc IgM indicates an acute HBV infection, while anti-HBc IgG indicates a past or chronic HBV infection.
What serological markers are used to diagnose an acute HDV infection?
An acute HDV infection is diagnosed by the presence of HDV RNA, HDV antigen, and anti-HDV IgM.
What does the presence of anti-HBs antibodies signify?
The presence of anti-HBs antibodies indicates recovery from HBV infection or successful vaccination against HBV.
What is the difference in serological markers between replicative and non-replicative chronic HBV infection?
In replicative chronic HBV infection, HBsAg, HBeAg, and HBV DNA are positive. In non-replicative chronic HBV infection, HBsAg is positive but HBeAg is negative or low, HBV DNA is negative or low, and anti-HBe is positive.
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