Overview
- Article traces how U.S. categories of race have changed since the 1790 census.
- Main argument: whiteness in America is socially constructed, historically fluid, and politically exploitable.
- Uses Polish-American history as a case study to show how immigrant groups became accepted as white.
- Connects historical patterns to contemporary politics, especially Donald Trump’s use of whiteness.
Historical Development Of Racial Categories
- 1790 census: three categories — free whites, other free people, slaves.
- Over 220 years categories expanded, contracted, and shifted (e.g., Korean listed separately in 1920, removed, re-added, later subsumed).
- 1980: Hispanic/Latino added as an ethnicity, not a race, in response to population growth.
- 2010 census categories: White; Black or African American; American Indian or Alaska Native; Asian; Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander; Some Other Race.
Key Concepts: Race, Ethnicity, And Whiteness
- Race vs. ethnicity: Race is not a biologically real category; ethnicity or ethnic group is often more meaningful scientifically.
- Whiteness is a social construct with material benefits (jobs, legal protection, social standing).
- Whiteness has been "a sliding scale" — groups accepted as white changed over time and context.
- Internal diversity: Each racial category contains many ethnicities and varied migration histories.
Case Study: Polish-American Experience
- Late 19th–early 20th century: Poles faced discrimination for appearance, religion (Catholicism), language, and culture.
- Negative stereotyping: described as ignorant, violent, physically inferior; forced anglicization of names.
- 1901 assassination by Polish-American Leon Czolgosz provoked collective blame and suspicion.
- Transition to whiteness:
- 1919 Chicago: Irish gangs in blackface attacked Polish neighborhoods to coerce Poles into a white anti-black alliance.
- Positioning Poles as white against black Americans led to social acceptance as white.
- Intermarriage among European ethnic groups contributed to broader white identity.
- Effects of becoming white:
- Formerly discriminated groups later participated in practices like white flight and discrimination.
- By mid-20th century, Polish-Americans were often termed "ethnic whites" — tolerated but not fully privileged compared to older Western European whites.
- Barbara Mikulski (1970): urged alliances across races and classes, rejecting pursuit of whiteness for advantage.
How Whiteness Is Politically Exploited (Contemporary Example)
- Trump’s strategy:
- Emphasizes threats from non-white groups (Mexicans, Muslims) to unite varied white constituencies.
- Does not articulate inclusive white ethnic identities; focuses on exclusion and antagonism.
- Uses rhetoric that aligns with white supremacist groups; campaign drew support from extremist figures.
- Resulting dynamics:
- Some white ethnics (e.g., Eastern Europeans) have rejected Trump, partly due to his ties with Russia.
- Others, including descendants of immigrants once discriminated against, became part of the white supremacist base.
- Contrast with Mikulski’s approach:
- Mikulski proposed cross-racial alliances to address economic and social injustice.
- Trump weaponizes whiteness to divide and redirect anger toward minorities rather than structural power-holders.
Broader Patterns And International Relevance
- The “becoming white” pattern applied to many immigrant groups: Italians, Jews, Greeks, Russians, Irish.
- Formerly marginalized European groups later participated in exclusionary practices.
- Europe parallels:
- Post-Brexit hostility toward Polish laborers; rise of white nationalist movements.
- Ambiguity of Polish whiteness persists in Europe as well as in the U.S.
- Recommended civic response: vigilance against racist mobilization and compassion for persecuted groups.
Key Terms And Definitions
- Race: Socially constructed classification historically used to rank people; lacks biological basis.
- Ethnicity: Social category based on shared culture, history, language, or national origin.
- Whiteness: A shifting social status that conveys privileges and shapes group boundaries.
- Ethnic White: Mid-20th-century label for white Americans of recent European origin who lacked full social advantages of older white groups.
| Topic | Details / Examples |
| 1790 Census Categories | Free whites; other free people; slaves |
| 2010 Census Categories | White; Black; American Indian/Alaska Native; Asian; Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander; Some Other Race |
| 1980 Change | Hispanic/Latino added as ethnicity |
| Polish-American Discrimination (early 1900s) | Stereotypes, anglicized names, associated with violence after McKinley assassination |
| Process Of Becoming White | Inter-group alliances, anti-black positioning, intermarriage, acceptance by broader society |
| Mid-20th-Century Status | "Ethnic whites" — less privileged than older Western European whites |
| Contemporary Political Use | Trump: exclusionary rhetoric, mobilizes whiteness against minorities |
| Alternative Strategy | Mikulski: alliance across races and classes to address injustice |
Main Lessons / Conclusions
- Whiteness is historically fluid and politically malleable; definitions have changed with migration and power dynamics.
- Becoming “white” granted material advantages but also led some immigrant groups to perpetuate exclusion.
- Modern political movements can exploit ambiguous white ethnic identities to mobilize support through fear of outsiders.
- Cross-racial alliances aimed at shared economic and civic improvement are presented as alternatives to exclusionary whiteness.
- Citizens must choose whether to accept exclusionary visions or resist them with inclusive, empathetic politics.
Action Items / Next Steps (for students)
- Compare census categories across different years to trace changes in racial classification.
- Analyze another ethnic group’s path to whiteness (e.g., Italians, Jews) and compare mechanisms.
- Discuss contemporary political rhetoric that uses racial identity; identify appeals to economic versus racial grievance.
- Debate policy and civic strategies that encourage cross-racial alliances rather than scapegoating.