Nationalism in India: Causes and Movements

Overview

• Topic: Nationalism in India (Chapter Two of History).
• Focus: Causes, key movements (Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience), participants, limitations, cultural forging of nationalism.
• Timeframe: World War I to the Truce period (1914–1931) with references up to Quit India (1942) and independence (1947).

Background And Causes

• World War I effects:
  • Britain increased taxes, took war loans, raised prices.
  • Forced recruitment and crop failures (from 1914); influenza epidemic worsened conditions.
  • Result: widespread anger and anti-British resentment.
• Colonial rule created anti-colonial unity as groups discovered shared grievances.
• Differences from European nationalism:
  • Europe: nationalism emerged via Renaissance ideas of liberty and equality.
  • India: nationalism grew largely as an anti-colonial response to British imperialism.

Gandhi And Satyagraha

• Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 from South Africa.
• Introduced Satyagraha: philosophy based on truth (satya) and non-violence (ahimsa).
  • Aim: appeal to the conscience of the oppressor, not use violence.
• Early experiments:
  • Champaran (1917) — indigo planters; peasants supported; principle tested.
  • Kheda (1917) — peasants’ tax relief during crop failure/epidemic.
  • Ahmedabad (1918) — cotton mill workers vs owners.

Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat — Immediate Triggers

• Rowlatt Act (1919): allowed imprisonment without trial up to two years; called a "black law".
• Jallianwala Bagh (13 April 1919): General Dyer opened fire on a crowd under martial law; intensified anger.
• Khilafat Movement:
  • Protest by Indian Muslims against harsh treatment of Ottoman Caliph after WWI.
  • Leaders like Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali allied with Gandhi to unite Hindus and Muslims.
• Combined effect created opportunity for a nationwide movement.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)

• Launched after Calcutta session (Sept 1920); adopted at Nagpur session (Dec 1920).
• Gandhi’s idea (from Hind Swaraj): withdraw cooperation to make British rule unsustainable.
• Methods/stages:
  • Return titles, boycott British schools/colleges/courts, refuse to pay taxes, boycott council elections.
  • Economic boycott: burn foreign cloth, picket liquor shops; imports fell.
• Rural forms:
  • Peasants’ protests often targeted local landlords (taluqdars) instead of British.
  • Baba Ramchandra organized peasants in Awadh; Awadh Kisan Sabha formed.
• Limitations and problems:
  • Economic hardship for poor (Khadi expensive); teachers/students struggled to sustain alternative institutions.
  • Violence in countryside, e.g., attacks on landlords, and breakdown of non-violence.
  • Chauri Chaura (Feb 1922): mob burned a police station; 22 policemen died.
• Gandhi called off the movement (Feb 1922) due to violence and need for training people in non-violence.

Truce Period (1922–1930)

• No major mass movement; time used to train people for future struggles.
• Swaraj Party formed within Congress by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru to contest council elections.
• Global context: 1929 worldwide economic depression damaged agricultural prices; rural distress increased.
• Simon Commission (1928–29):
  • British commission to review constitution had no Indian members; faced "Go Back Simon" protests.
• Viceroy Irwin offered Dominion Status to calm unrest; young leaders opposed it and demanded full independence (Purna Swaraj).

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1931)

• Trigger: Failure to secure demands; Gandhi’s 11-point letter to Viceroy Irwin (31 Jan 1930) included repeal of salt tax.
• Salt March/Dandi March:
  • Gandhi walked ~240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi (March–April 1930), made salt (6–7 April).
  • Marked start of civil disobedience: deliberate breaking of colonial laws non-violently.
• Distinctions from Non-Cooperation:
  • Non-Cooperation = withdrawal of cooperation.
  • Civil Disobedience = active breaking of unjust colonial laws (e.g., salt), refusal to pay taxes, non-payment of revenue, picketing shops.
• Spread and state reaction:
  • Mass arrests, including Gandhi; some protests turned violent when crowds reacted.
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) ended this phase; Gandhi attended Round Table Conference in London.
• Called off in 1931 (after pact); subsequent relaunch attempts faced heavy repression and arrests.

Who Participated And How They Viewed Swaraj

• Five broad categories:
  1. Rich peasants (patidars, jats): supported movement expecting revenue relief.
  2. Poor peasants/tenants: sought remission of land rent and protection from landlords.
  3. Urban groups: merchants and industrialists supported removal of colonial restrictions to expand business.
  4. Workers/plantation labourers: demands for better conditions; plantation workers wanted freedom from confinement.
  5. Women: participated at large scale for first time — picketing, salt manufacture, marches.
• Tribal participation:
  • Tribal communities (e.g., Gudem Hills) resisted loss of forest rights; leaders like Alluri Sitarama Raju led guerrilla-style uprisings.
• Plantation workers:
  • Affected by Inland Immigration/Indentured labour systems; saw Swaraj as escape from confinement.
• Diverging aims:
  • Groups interpreted Swaraj differently based on local grievances; unity formed a pan-India identity despite different goals.

Limitations And Conflicts Within The Movement

• Economic sustainability: Khadi was costly; poor could not sustain boycotts.
• Violence: Movements sometimes turned violent, undermining Gandhi’s non-violence ethos.
• Caste issue:
  • Untouchables (Depressed classes) demanded separate electorates; Dr. B.R. Ambedkar led their organization.
  • Gandhi opposed separate electorates; threat of separate electorates led to Poona Pact (Sept 1932): Ambedkar gave up separate electorates; reserved seats agreed instead.
• Communal/religious tensions:
  • Rise of Hindu separatism and stronger Muslim League presence by 1930s.
  • Failed negotiations on reserved seats for Muslims (Jinnah vs Hindu leaders) increased communal distrust.
  • Hindu-Muslim unity was stronger in Non-Cooperation than in some phases of Civil Disobedience.

Cultural Forging Of Nationalism

• Two main processes to create collective belonging:
  1. United political struggle — shared action against colonial rule fostered national identity.
  2. Cultural revival — use of history, fiction, songs, folklore, symbols, icons, and flags.
• Examples:
  • Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay: Vande Mataram and image of Bharat Mata.
  • Revival of folklore: Tagore and others collected folk tales across regions.
  • Flags and symbols: Swadeshi flags; later Swaraj flag with spinning wheel symbolized unity and self-reliance.
  • Reinterpretation of history to instill pride (e.g., highlighting ancient medical and scientific achievements).
• Effect: people began visualizing a pan-India identity beyond local loyalties.

Later Movements And Outcome (Summary)

• Quit India Movement (1942):
  • Launched by Congress in July 1942; called for immediate British withdrawal.
  • Mass arrests; new leaders (Aruna Asaf Ali, Jai Prakash Narayan) emerged.
  • Movement disrupted colonial administration but was suppressed.
• Toward Independence:
  • WWII weakened Britain; INA under Subhash Chandra Bose also challenged British authority.
  • Combined pressures and post-war realities contributed to independence in 1947.

Key Terms And Definitions

Action Items / Exam Tips

• Remember chronology: Gandhi returns (1915) → Champaran/Kheda/Ahmedabad (1917–18) → Rowlatt & Jallianwala (1919) → Non-Cooperation (1920–22) → Truce/Swaraj Party (1922–30) → Civil Disobedience/Salt March (1930–31).
• Key dates to recall: Champaran (1917 per new NCERT), Kheda (1917), Ahmedabad (1918), Rowlatt & Jallianwala (1919), Non-Cooperation adopted (Dec 1920), Chauri Chaura (Feb 1922), Salt March (March–April 1930), Poona Pact (1932).
• For 5-mark questions: explain how WWI, Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, and Khilafat combined to create a mass movement.
• For comparison questions: contrast Non-Cooperation (boycott/withdrawal) with Civil Disobedience (active law-breaking).
• Use bullet summaries of participants and limitations to answer source-based or short answer questions quickly.

Summary Conclusion

• Nationalism in India emerged from shared anti-colonial struggles and was strengthened by Gandhi’s methods and cultural revival.
• Movements united diverse groups, created a pan-Indian identity, but also faced internal divisions (caste, communal, economic).
• The combined political, social, and cultural efforts ultimately contributed to India’s path to independence.