Transcript for:
British Medical History Overview

hello BS in this video we're going through all of your nxl one of the topics for paper one the medicine topics so Point by point we are going through this to go with this completely free open the website in the master class there are notes to go with this so you can download the notes and you can add them as we're going through this video then you can use the notes and the video to do the free questions and the free flash cards that we've made for you as well all you need to do is create a free account over in the top right hand corner and then it can have access to all of the free content on the website within our history master class there is also the predicted papers that we've written you can have access to the ones for last year which you can use through vision M or practicing your exam techniques and some of these questions we were so good at predicting and then if you're in the master class you'll also get early access to the predictive papers for next year's and weekly live sessions where we go through the content and how to answer [Music] [Applause] GCSE history topic one medicine in medieval England ideas about the cause of disease and illness in this video we're going to be looking at popular explanations for illness in the medieval period the influence of hypocrates and galin on medieval medicine and why there is little change in ideas in the Years Circa 1250 to Circa 1500 in medieval England the understanding of disease and illness was strongly connected to Supernatural and religious beliefs explanations often stemed from a limited knowledge of medicine and the human body as well as the significant influence of religion on daily life Supernatural explanations demonic forces illness could be explained by demonic possession or the influence of Ed Spirits it was believed that demons could inflict disease on individuals as a way to torment them or lead them away from God exorcisms and other religious rituals were performed in an attempt to cure such illnesses astrology the positions of stars and planets were thought to have a direct impact on health medieval astrology suggested that Celestial alignments could bring about disease or influence their severity religious explanations Divine punishment diseases were often seen as a form of punishment from God for sins committed by individuals or communities this belief was based on the idea that God was directly involved in the lives of people rewarding good behavior and punishing bad epidemics or illnesses affecting large groups such as the Black Death was sometimes seen as a sign of collective sin test test of faith suffering and illness were sometimes viewed as tests from God designed to strengthen the Faith Of The Afflicted enduring illness with patience and faith was seen as a way to prove one's Devotion to God Saints and miracles the intervention of Saints or the Virgin Mary could be called on for healing pilgrimages to Holy sights prayers and offerings were made in the hope of miraculous cures why were these beliefs accepted in medieval times there was a limited understanding of how diseases spread or what caused them without the knowledge of germs or the role of hygiene in preventing illness Supernatural and religious explanations filled the Gap in understanding the church was a central Authority in medieval life influencing education politics and daily activities religious leaders and text provided explanation for the natural world including disease which were widely accepted as truth sometimes events that seem to support Supernatural or religious explanations occurred such as recovery from illness after a pilgrimage or prayer this could reinforce the belief in Divine or Supernatural causes and cures for Disease an example of how illness in medieval times was seen from a religious Viewpoint is the approach to the disease of leprosy also known as Hansen's disease leprosy is an infectious disease caused by bacteria it primarily affects the skin the nerves and the upper respiratory tract leading to symptoms like skin nodules which are bumps and nerve damage these symptoms can cause a lot of sensation which may lead to injuries and infections that go unnoticed potentially resulting in severe deformities and disabilities leprosy was often referenced in the Bible where it was described not only as a physical disease but also as a mark of sin or moral failing this interpretation led to significant social stigma of disgrace and isolation for those suffering from leprosy affected individuals commonly referred to as lepers were often isolated from society in leper colonies they were required to wear specific clothing and ring bells to Signal their presence helping to avoid contact with the healthy population the medieval Church played a significant role in reinforcing the connection between sin and disease the clergy often preached that suffering from diseases like leprosy was a way to atone or apologize for one's sins purifying the soul and potentially restoring spiritual health thus leprosy in medieval times serves as a clear example of how diseases were seen from a religious Viewpoint not all explanations for disease and illness in medieval England were Supernatural or religious other popular theories included the theory of the four humors and the miasma Theory the theory of the four humors the theory of the four humors was created by Hippocrates an ancient Greek physician and further developed by Galen a Roman physician according to this Theory human health and temperament were determined by the balance of four bodily fluids or humors blood Flem black bile and yellow bile each of the four humors was associated with specific qualities and elements blood was associated with air spring and a sanguine temperament somebody that could be described as being optimistic social and enthusiastic fleem was linked to water winter and a fmatic temperament somebody described as relaxed peaceful and quiet black bile was connected to Earth Autumn and and a melancholic temperament somebody that's analytical wise and quiet and yellow bile was tied to fire summer and a cheric temperament somebody that's ambitious leader likee but also aggressive B of A medicine suggested that illness resulted from an imbalance in these humors each type of imbalance was thought to produce different symptoms and diseases an excess of blood might result in fever or a flushed complexion indicative of too much heat too much fleem could be seen in respiratory or breathing ail or a lethargic temperament suggesting excessive coldness and moisture overabundance of black B was linked to digestive issues and melancholic or unhappy conditions reflect an imbalance towards coldness and dryness whilst the surplus of yellow biome was associated with digestive disorders anger and inflammation pointing to an excess of heat and dryness why was it popular the theory of the four humors was widely accepted in medieval England for several reasons it provided a comprehensive explanation that linked the physical emotional and environmental aspects of Health the theory was supported by the church and taught in universities reinforcing its Authority and widespread use it offered practical guidelines for treatment and personal conduct including diet exercise and lifestyle choices which people could apply in their daily lives the lack of alterate scientific explanations of disease made the theory one of the few available for understanding ing health and illness the influence of hypocrates in galin on medicine in England was of great significance hypocrates an ancient Greek physician often referred to as the father of medicine laid the foundations for medical practice with his emphasis on observation hypocrates concept that Health was maintained by a balance of the four humors blood fleem black bile and yellow bile dominated medical thinking influencing diagnoses and treatments Galen a Greek physician and philosopher who served in Rome built upon hypocrates ideas and greatly expanded the medical knowledge of the time through his extensive writings and anatomical studies galin's Works were translated into Latin making them accessible to Scholars and physicians in medieval England the church which played a central role in medieval Society found aspects of galin's theories compatible with its teachings particularly the emphasis on the balance of the humors which could be seen as reflecting a divinely ordered Universe universities often with the support of the church made the study of the works of hypocrates and galin a basis of medical education medicine in medieval England was heavily influenced by various classical scholars in addition to hypocrates and galin notable figures included Aristotle Aristotle's theories particularly the enhancement of the four humors played a crucial role in shaping medieval medical thought in England his emphasis on observation and natural philosophy provided a framework for studying human physiology which the functions of the body and the causes of disease aena as he was known in the West Was a Persian philosopher and perhaps the most influential non-greek classical scholar avisa's Cannon of medicine was a comprehensive medical encyclopedia that combined the medical knowledge of the time including Greek Roman and Islamic medicine the Canon was translated into Latin in the 12th century and became a standard text in many European universities di scores his work de Materia Med or on medical material was a foundational text on pharmacology the study of medicines and botany the study of plants that deeply influenced medical practices in medieval England serving as the primary reference for Herbal treatments these classical Scholars contributed significantly to the body of medical knowledge in medieval England providing texts that served as reference points for both medical theory and practice myasthma theory according to the miasma Theory the cause of illness was not germs but rather my Asma which is noxious or bad air the theory was a widely held belief in medieval England and throughout much of the world until the late 19th century it was believed that my asthma could arise from decaying matter such such as rotting food dead animals and human waste the miasma Theory suggested that breathing in foul air was the primary way diseases spread this made places with poor air circulation like crowded urban areas or swamps considered highly dangerous continuity in ideas the continuity and ideas about the cause of disease and illness in medieval England was due to several linked factors factors firstly the role of the church the church was the central institution in medieval Society with considerable influence over people's lives it played a crucial role in education and was often the main if not the only source of knowledge and learning for most people illness was frequently seen from a religious Viewpoint as the result of divine will punishment for sin or a test of faith this in interpretation discouraged the search for alterate explanations or cures furthermore the church supported the study of galen's and hypocrates works which fitted with Christian teachings about the harmony of the universe created by God this backing ensured the continuity of their medical theories secondly were attitudes in society medieval Society was hierarchical and submission to those in Authority was expected questioning the established order or the teachings of the church and respected ancient Scholars was often discouraged or outright forbidden limited scientific knowledge and understanding the medieval period was characterized by a limited understanding of the human body disease and the natural world the absence of tools like the microscope made it impossible to observe bacteria and viruses leading to a Reliance on exist in theories The Works of Hippocrates and galin alongside other classical texts were copied and transmitted by monks the lengthy process of manuscript reproduction and the church's control over education institutions meant that new ideas spread slowly and faced considerable scrutiny so to summarize medieval ideas about the cause of disease and illness diseases were often attributed to Supernatural causes or religious reasons the theory of the four humors suggested that Health depended on the balance of four bodily fluids blood fleem black bile and yellow B according to the miasma Theory diseases were caused by bad air from decaying materials medical practices were heavily influenced by the teachings of hypocrates and galin their ideas were taught widely due to the support of the church and finally continuity in ideas was largely due to the church's dominant role in education a lack of scientific progress and a social structure that discouraged questioning Authority approaches to prevention and treatment in this video we are looking at the various ways people in medieval England try to prevent and treat illness and how these methods link to ideas about the the cause of disease approaches to prevention and treatment in medieval England were a mixture of religious practices traditional remedies and early Medical Treatments based on the dominant theories of the time particularly the theory of the four humors religious approaches prayer was a common response to illness with people seeking divine intervention for healing people also went on pilgrimages to Holy sights is it it was believed that sacred relics could have miraculous healing powers illness was often seen as a punishment for sin so fasting confession and other acts of penitence were practiced in the hope of satisfying God and thus curing the disease Supernatural approaches wearing amulets or carrying charms made from specific materials or inscribed with prayers was thought to offer protection against disease or to cure specific illnesses humoral approaches blood leting based on the theory of the four humors blood leting was used to restore balance within the body it was believed that removing a certain amount of blood could reduce the excess blood and ease conditions thought to be caused by its dominance leeches direct cutting and cupping were methods used to draw blood often performed by Barber surgeons purging purging was another method to balance the humors targeting Flem black bile and yellow bile this could involve the use of laxa tis tics ruce vomiting or enemas adjustments to one's diet were also considered a form of purging by avoiding Foods thought to contribute to the excess of a particular humor traditional remedies a wide range of plants and herbs were used for their supposed medical properties often based on a doctrine of signatures the belief that the appearance of a plant indicated its healing potential deraka was a complex herbal remedy originating from ancient Greece where it was initially created as an antidote to poisons this spice-based concoction included a diverse blend of 60 to 70 ingredients featuring key components like ginger pepper and saffron by the Middle Ages Thea had involved Beyond its original use and was regarded as a universal remedy said to cure all diseases other approaches purifying the air with the belief in my asthma as a cause of disease purifying the air was considered essential for prevention this could involve using herbs like Rosemary Juniper or frankincense which were believed to cleanse the air of harmful Vapors bathing and hygiene though not common commonly practiced some recommended bathing and cleanliness as ways to prevent or treat illness reflecting a basic understanding of the importance of hygiene grade nine knowledge the healing power of monarchs in medieval England it was commonly believed that the Monarch possessed special healing powers specifically the ability to cure scrofula also known as the king's evil this condition a form of tuberculosis was treated through a ritual known as the royal touch this involved the Monarch Touching The Afflicted individuals often accompanied by religious ceremonies including prayers and making the sign of the cross emphasizing its Divine aspect Henry II who reigned in the 12th century from 1133 to 1189 is one of the earliest English monarchs reported to have carried out these ceremonies the ritual persisted into the early modern period for instance Henry iith who became king towards the end of the 15th century and Charles II who reigned in the 17th century would attempt to heal large numbers of people during religious festivals such as Easter and Christmas Queen Anne was the last British monarch to engage in the practice performing it in the early 18th century by then increased skepticism about the divine right and supernatural abilities of monarchs that caused its decline in summary approaches to prevention and treatment in medieval England included prayer and pilgrimages to seek Divine Healing and the use of amulets or charms believ to protect against or cure illnesses treatments such as blood letting and purging were used to restore the balance of the four humors these practices were often carried out by Barber surgeons and involved Tech techniques like using leeches or cutting and administering laxs or tics a wide array of herbs and plants were used based on their supposed healing properties purifying the air with herbs and maintaining personal hygiene were considered important to prevent diseases caused by bad air or myasthma caring for the sick in this video we are looking at the care provided by different types of medical professionals the care provided in the community and in hospitals and continuity and change in hospital care in the 13th century the three main types of medical professionals in medieval England were Physicians apothecaries and barber surgeons each playing a different role in treatment physician training and knowledge Physicians were the most formally educated of the medical medical professionals often receiving training at universities their education typically included studying The Works of classical authors like Hippocrates and galin and they had a deep understanding of the theory of the four humors role Physicians diagnosed illnesses and prescribed treatments which could include dietary recommendations lifestyle changes and medicines however they rarely performed surgery or prepared medicines themselves leaving those tasks to other professionals patients due to their high level of training and the cost of their services Physicians mainly treated the wealthy and members of the nobility Apothecary training and knowledge apothecaries were experts in the preparation and sale of medicines their training was more practical and Hands-On focused on the properties of herbs minerals and other substances used in treatments role ao's prepared and dispensed Herbal Remedies potions and ointments as described by physicians or based on their own knowledge patience Apothecary served a broader section of society than Physicians providing services to the less wealthy as well Barber surgeon training and knowledge Barber surgeons received practical training often through apprenticeships they combined the roles of Barber and surgeon because both professions required skill with sharp instruments role Barber surgeons performed a wide range of surgical procedures from tooth extractions and blood leting to more complex operations such as amputations they also provided basic medical care including wound dressing and the Lancing of abscesses patients Barber surgeons were accessible to the common people offering services that were more affordable than those of a physician they played a crucial role in the community by providing Surgical and basic Medical Care to those who could not access or afford a physician services care for the sick was provided through a combination of community support and hospitals the type of care varied considerably ranging from informal assistance in the h to more structured care in hospitals which were often founded and run by religious institutions the concept of Health Care during this period was not only about treating Illness but also about providing for the spiritual social and material needs of individuals Community Care in medieval Society the primary responsibility for caring for the sick fell to the family women played a crucial role as caregivers using traditional remedies and providing nursing care the church and charitable individuals also contributed to Community Care offering food shelter and basic medical attention to the needy monasteries and convents often provided Hospitality to Travelers and care for the sick drawing upon their members knowledge of Herbal Remedies and spiritual healing in addition to family care communities often had access to local Healers such as wise women herbalists and Bone Setters Who provided treatments based on traditional knowledge and practices grade nine knowledge the role of women in medieval England women played a crucial role in medicine primarily as caregivers in the home and as midwives despite being barred from formal medical training at universities their practice was largely based on her verbal knowledge and traditional remedies passed down through generations as midwives women were essential in child birth providing not only medical care but also support and guidance to mothers before during and after delivery however because they were excluded from formal education and their practices were often informal these women rarely left traces in historical records despite this they were Central to the Healthcare in their communities significantly contributing to the medical field in ways that are often under represented in historical documentation hospitals medieval hospitals were established by religious groups charitable individuals and sometimes by guilt their funding came from donations legacies and endowments often with the condition that the hospital pray for the souls of its benefactors early hospitals were not solely or even primarily focused on medical treatment they also served as arms houses for the poor hospices for travelers and retirement homes for the elderly over time some hospitals began to specializ in the care of the sick but they continued to offer a broad range of services to various groups the care provided in hospitals dealt with both spiritual and physical needs patients received food shelter and basic nursing care along with religious guidance and the opportunity to participate in religious Services the staff in hospitals might include a chaplain for Spiritual needs with members of religious orders providing nursing care physicians and surgeons were not typically employed by hospitals but they might visit patients or be called upon for specific cases continuity and change in hospital care in the 13th century continuity hospitals in the 13th century continued to be established by religious institutions or through donations from wealthy individuals often with the primary aim of offering care as an act of Christian charity the spiritual care of patients including prayer and participation in religious Services remained a central aspect of hospital care the approach to care was holistic focusing on the well-being of the whole person Body Mind and Spirit this often included providing food shelter and clothing in addition to any medical treatment hospitals were part of the community serving not just the sick but also the poor Travelers and the elderly this reflected the traditional view of hospitals as multi-purpose charitable institutions rather than exclusively medical facilities change in the 13th century the 13th century saw the beginning of specialization within hospital care some hospitals started to focus specifically on certain groups such as lepers or particular types of care such as the treatment of the sick rather than the broad charitable functions of earlier institutions there was a gradual increase in the involvement of medical professionals including Physicians and surgeons in hospital care those still limited this represented a shift towards a more formal approach to medical treatment within hospitals the design of hospitals began to change to better accommodate the needs of patients and medical care this included the construction of more specialized facilities such as isolation areas for infectious patients and improvements in sanitation to summarize caring for the sick in medieval England Physicians diagnosed and prescribed for the wealthy apothecaries dispensed Herbal Remedies Barber surgeons provided Surgical and basic care to the common people care was predominantly community-based with women and local healers using traditional remedies to provide nursing care and treat illnesses medieval hospitals provided comprehensive care including food shelter and basic nursing alongside spiritual guidance primarily staffed by religious orders with occasional support from Visiting Physicians and surgeons in the 13th century hospitals began to specialize in treating specific groups and conditions dealing with the black death from 1348 to 49 in this video we are looking at the key features of the Black Death including its spread symptoms and impact how medieval people explained it and approaches to try and treat it and and prevent its spread the Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history it arrived in England in 1348 as part of a broader outbreak that swept through Europe between 1347 and 1351 It is believed to have been brought from Asia via the trade route the Black Death is estimated to have killed 30 to 50% of England's population the exact death toll is difficult to determine but it significantly reduced the population with immediate and longlasting effects on society entire Villages were wiped out Fields lay fallow due to the shortage of Labor and the breakdown of normal life led to food shortages and increased prices the Black Death was an outbreak of the Bubonic plague this was characterized by swollen lymph nodes known as bubos but other symptoms included fever and chills headaches fatigue and muscle aches and pains the Bubonic plague was primarily spread by the bites of infected fleas carried on the backs of rats the bacterian responsible for the plague Yia pesus was transmitted to humans from the bite of an infected flea these fleas were common in Europe at the time and thrived in cities towns and rural areas alike like ideas about the causes the outbreak of the Black Death prompted a search for explanations with many turning to religious interpretations seeing the plague as Divine punishment for sin one widely believed astrological cause was an unusual positioning of three planets Mars Jupiter and Saturn which occurred in 1345 astrologers at the time believed this air alignment produced a corrupt atmosphere poisoning the air and leading to widespread illness and death a natural explanation was the miasma Theory which suggested that disease was caused by bad air coming from rotting matter such is decaying animals or waste according to this Theory the Black Death was spread through the inhalation of this polluted air some theories suggested the earthquakes or volcanic eruptions had released deadly fumes from within the Earth which then spread as my asthma this was based on reports of earthquakes and other natural disasters in Europe and Asia before the outbreak of the Black Death the absence of effective medical knowledge about the Black Death led many to turn to religious beliefs and practices for comfort and cure these approaches reflected the widespread medieval belief in divine intervention in healing for some religious treatment for the Black Death also meant accepting the illness as part of God's will finding comfort in the belief that suffering and death were part of a divine plan religious approaches pilgrimages individuals undertook pilgrimages to holy sites praying for cure and protection from the Black Death visiting shrines dedicated to Saints believed to have healing powers was common prayers special prayers were written and performed to ward off the Black Death these prayers were offered both in community Gatherings and in private seeking mercy and intervention from God masses the church held masses specifically for those affected by the Black Death praying for their recovery and the salvation of The Souls of the Dead flagellation groups of flagellants emerged beli that the Black Death was a punishment for sin they publicly whipped themselves as a form of penance hoping their self-inflicted suffering would lessen God's anger and end the disease in addition to religious approaches people also relied heavily on treatments based on traditional ideas and practices traditional approaches various herbs were used for their supposed healing properties these included aloe and Mer which were believed to strengthen the body's resistance to disease vinegar especially when mixed with herbs was used as a disinfectant people washed their bodies in homes with vinegar and carried vinegar soaked sponges to breathe through hoping to protect themselves furthermore following the theory of the four humors blood leting and purging were encouraged by physicians to restore the body's Natural Balance by removing excess humors believed to cause illness some who could afford to do so led the cities and towns for the countryside believing that fresh air and a clean environment could offer protection from the disease this is influenced by the miasma Theory which suggested that bad air caused illness local Authority action local authorities took several actions to prevent the spread of the Black Death under new quarantine laws people new to an area had to stay away from others for 40 days houses were placed in quarantine where there had been an outbreak of the Black Death local authorities stopped cleaning the streets because they believed the smells from the waste would drive away the bad air to prevent the congregation of people and the potential spread of the disease public Gatherings were sometimes banned this included markets fairs and even church services the dead were buried in deep Mass pits well away from residential areas in summary the Black Death reached England in 1348 reducing the population by up to 50% and causing severe economic and social disruption symptoms of the Black Death included swollen lymph nodes fever and headaches and it was spread primarily by fleas on rats people explained the Black Death as the result of divine punishment astrological alignments or bad air from decaying matter communities relied on religious rituals traditional remedies like herbs and medical practices such as blood letting efforts to prevent the spread of the Black Death included quarantine laws restrictions on public Gatherings and mass burials GCSE history topic two the medical Renaissance in England I ideas about the cause of disease and illness in this video we are looking at continuity and change in explanations about the cause of disease and illness the work and impact of Thomas sidam and the influence of the printing press and the Royal Society on the spread of ideas during the Renaissance in England beliefs about the cause of disease and illness gradually shifted from medieval explanation heavily influenced by religion and Superstition towards a more scientific approach however during this transition old theories were blended with new discoveries and there was both continuity and change in ideas continuity ideas that stayed the same or saw little change included my Asma Theory the belief in myasthma or bad air as a cause of disease continued well into the Renaissance and Beyond according to this Theory diseases were caused by harmful Vapors from rotting matter or unsanitary conditions Supernatural and religious explanations while the Renaissance saw a move towards more scientific explanations for disease Supernatural and religious explanations for illness persisted diseases were still often seen as a form of divine punishment or the result of evil spirits or witchcraft astrology the use of astrology in medicine endured during the Renaissance many Physicians believed that the positions of the stars and planets could influence health and were essential to diagnosing diseases and determining the best times of treatments astrological charts were commonly used in medical practice change new ideas and discoveries included discrediting the theory of the four humors one of the most significant shifts was the questioning and eventual challenge to the dominance of the theory of the four humors advances in anatomy and physiology inspired by the work of Scholars like Andreas velius showed that many aspects Theory did not fit with the observed human anatomy and bodily functions discovery of microorganisms the development of the microscope in the late 16th and early 17th centuries brought about new ideas on the causes of disease the discovery of microorganisms or Animal fues by Anthony van Leen hook using his microscopes in the late 17th century suggested tiny invisible creatures could be responsible for illnesses rather than imbalances in humors recognition of environmental and social factors there is a growing awareness of the roles that environmental and social factors play in health and disease the understanding that cleanliness could improve health led to Public Health initiatives such as the Improvement of Sanitation and the establishment of quarantines during outbreaks of disease why did ideas start to change at the heart of the Renaissance was humanism a movement that rejected Supernatural or religious explanations about the world instead encouraging people to make up their own minds a return to the classical learning of ancient Greece and Rome was also encouraged Scholars Revisited ancient texts which encouraged questions to be asked about them this renewed study identified errors in medieval medicine and prompted the search for a more accurate understanding of the human body the Renaissance period was also a time of significant social and political change including the reformation and the weakening of the Catholic Church's Authority these changes allowed for greater freedom of thought and inquiry enabling Scholars to challenge traditional views on disease and medicine without as much fear of censorship or punishment furthermore the Age of Exploration exposed Europeans to new lands peoples and diseases the appearance of new illnesses such as syphilis challenged existing medical theories and demanded new explanations and treatments why was change limited the theory of the four humors remained deeply rooted in both the medical community and the general public ancient theories continued to be taught in universities and were a fundamental part of Medical Training making it challenging to replace them with new ideas moreover many people continued to view disease from a religious or superstitious Viewpoint which limited the acceptance of more scientific explanations for disease and hindered the adoption of new medical practices in addition whilst the Renaissance saw improvements in tools for dissection and the invention of the microscope towards its end medical instruments were still relatively simplistic by modern standards the lack of precise instruments limited the extent to which Physicians could diagnose illnesses early microscopes for example were not powerful enough to clearly reveal microorganisms delaying the understand understanding of their role in disease Thomas sidam Thomas sidam was a leading physician in London in the 1660s and 1670s towards the end of the Renaissance period he was nicknamed the English hypocrates and played a pivotal role in shifting medical diagnosis towards modern scientific methods based on observation thereby moving medicine further away from classical teaching syum championed the idea that diagnosing an illness required a physician to meticulously observe and document a patient's symptoms before directly treating the underlying disease he shunned Reliance on medical texts alone challenging the theory of the four humors which suggested diseases varied from one individual to another sidim argued that each disease was distinct and required accurate identification to effectively recommend a cure he successfully distinguished between diseases such as scarlet fever and measles both of which were highly dangerous at the time in 1676 sidim shared his revolutionary medical ideas in his publication medical observations his contributions significantly Advanced the movement toward a more scientific approach to diagnosis braid n knowledge sidon's treatment sidnam was influenced in his medical practice by his experiences living in London during the Great Plague during his lifetime he was most famous for his Innovative treatments for diseases like small pox and malaria the small pox which was among the most feared diseases of the period syum introduced more Humane treatment methods such as promoting cleanliness and fresh air a star contrast to the harsher practices of the time which included bloodletting purging and sweating additionally his work with malaria involved pioneering the use of quinine an extract from the cinchona bark which proved effective in treating the disease the printing press the printing press was invented by johans Gutenberg in Germany in the mid 15th century and was a significant technological advancement gutenberg's press used movable metal type made from molds which allowed for the rapid setting and resetting of text this was a considerable improvement over the handcarved wooden blocks previously used for printing in Europe and allowed for the mass production of text with speed and consistency the printing press had a considerable impact on the spread of knowledge including new medical ideas by making books more accessible and affordable printed books were more uniform than handwritten manuscripts which were prone to errors and variations this helped to ensure that medical knowledge was consistent and accurate enabling better communication and understanding among Physicians and Scholars before the invention of the printing press the copying of manuscripts was predominantly controlled by the church often within monastic communities this gave the church significant power over what knowledge was preserved and shared the printing press took the production of books out of the exclusive hands of the church which enabled the spread of a broader range of ideas including those that challenged traditional Church teachings the Royal Society the Royal Society was founded in London in 1660 its purpose was to encourage the understanding and development of Science by enabling communication among scientists just 2 years after its establishment in 1662 the Royal Society received a royal Charter from King Charles II this support from the monarchy allowed the society to publish its findings and sponsor scientific research the motto for the Royal Society nullus in verber translates to take nobody's word for it illustrating the society's commitment to establishing facts through experiments rather than relying on existing theories or texts one of the most significant contributions of the Royal Society to the advancement of science was the creation of its Journal philosophical transactions which first appeared in 1665 philosophical transactions provided a means scientists to communicate their findings to each other enabling the spread and discussion of ideas by publishing detailed descriptions of experiments and observations the journal also allowed other scientists to repeat studies and confirm results as well as subjecting them to scrutiny and criticism such an approach is the foundation of modern scientific study in summary in the period Circa 1500 to Circa 1700 many people still believed in older theories like my Asma Supernatural forces and astrology affecting Health the Renaissance questioned and eventually moved away from the theory of the four humors and introduced the idea of microorganisms as possibly being responsible for disease known as the English Epocrates Thomas sidnam in the 1660s changed how Physicians diagnosed illnesses by focusing on what symptoms patients actually showed the invention of the printing press in the mid- 15th century helped spread medical knowledge more widely and reduced the church's control over what information people could access established in 1660 the Royal Society encouraged scientists to share their discoveries and check each other's work helping to advance science through its Journal philosophical transactions approaches to prevention and treatment in this video we are looking at continuity and change in prevention and treatment between the medieval and Renaissance periods the Renaissance period in medical treatment was characterized by both continuity and traditional practices and significant changes brought about by new theories exploration and the development of medical chemistry continuity in treatments one of the main continuities was the Persistence of humoral treatments such as blood leting and purging blood leting either by cutting a vein or through the application of leeches was used to remove excess blood thought to be the cause of inflammation and fever purging through the administration of emetics and laxatif was used to rid the body of other harmful excesses change in treatments a new idea that did emerge was the theory of trans transference this popular Theory suggested that disease could be transferred from the patient to another object or being as a form of treatment for instance rubbing warts with an onion was believed to transfer the warts to the onion while people also try to transfer illnesses to live animals such as sheep or chickens new plants brought back from the Americas and other parts of the world by explorers were incorporated in into Medical Treatments for example the introduction of CA from South America who was critical in treating malaria thanks to its quinine content similarly tobacco sassafras and Guam were all new remedies used for various illnesses providing Physicians and apothecaries with alternatives to traditional European herbs the Renaissance also witnessed the birth of medical chemistry or a astrochemistry paracelsus one of the most influential figures in this area promoted the use of minerals and chemicals in medicine such as mercury and antimony Mercury was used primarily to treat syphilis a relatively new disease in Europe that had reached epidemic proportions antimony despite being toxic was used for its perative properties reflecting a shift from herbal to chemical remedies in the treatment of disease grade n knowledge the use of Mercury Mercury was widely used in medicine at this time primarily for treating syphil Mercury treatment involved various forms including topical ointments which were applied to particular parts of the body ingestion which was taken through breathing or swallowing and fumigation where patients were exposed to Mercury Vapors despite its popularity Mercury treatments were dangerous and could lead to severe side effects such as tooth loss severe ulcers neurological brain damage and even death due to mercury poisoning the toxic nature of mercury and the harsh reactions it caused gradually led to skepticism and the eventual decline of its use as safer treatments were developed as with treatment the Renaissance period was marked by a mix of continuity with traditional practices and Innovations in disease prevention there was a growing acknowledgement that preventing illness was preferable and often easier than curing it continuity in prevention one of the key continuities from the medieval period was the emphasis on the regimen sanit arus or the regimen of Health this concept involved maintaining Health through a balanced diet moderate exercise and sufficient sleep these guidelines were aimed at preserving the balance of the four humors within the body believed to be essential for good health religious practices including prayer continue to play a significant role in prevention illness was often viewed as a display of divine will or moral failing th spiritual actions like prayers pilgrimages and the use of Rel were common preventative measures as well as treatments the importance of cleanliness also persisted though its understanding and implementation began to change bathing and clean living environments were promoted as ways to prevent disease continuing medieval practices that linked physical Purity with health change in prevention as the understanding of disease causation changed so did the emphasis on specific preventative measures the miasma Theory which suggested that diseases were caused by bad air from rotting matter gained prominence efforts to prevent illness increasingly focused on purifying the air and removing sources of foul smells this led to Public Health measures such as street cleaning waste removal and the drainage of swamps the Renaissance also saw a growing interest in the IDE aidea of individual Constitution essentially a person's natural physical and mental character which was thought to affect their vulnerability to various diseases this concept encouraged a more personalized approach to prevention considering an individual's unique characteristics when recommending diet exercises and other preventative measures in summary the Renaissance continued traditional treatments like blood letting and introduced new Concepts such as disease transference alongside incorporating new plants from the Americas for medicinal use key figures like paralus promoted iatri chemistry shifting from herbal to chemical remedies using substances like Mercury for syphilis and Antony for purging Renaissance prevention mixed old methods like the regimen sanit Artis with theories like my asthma emphasizing cleanliness and Public Health measures the concept of individual Constitution influenced tailored preventative measures taking into account each person's unique characteristics with specific Health recommendations caring for the sick in this video we are looking at improvements in medical training during the Renaissance the work and influence of Andreas velus and continuity and change in hospital and Community Care the r Nance was a period of progress in medical training in England whereas Medical Care experienced both continuity and change marked by shifts in hospital care the impact of religious upheaval and the continued importance of Home Care mainly provided by women apothecaries and surgeons apothecaries started to receive more structured training through apprenticeships these apprenticeships involved hands-on experience under the guid of an experienced Master they learned not only about local Herbal Remedies but also about substances brought from across the world due to increased trade and exploration surgeons also experienced improved training previously surgery was often practiced by Barbers who performed minor surgeries and dental work as part of their General Services however the greater emphasis on anatomical knowledge during the Renaissance led to improvements in surgical techniques and a better understanding of human anatomy the professionalization of apothecaries and surgeons during this period was aided by the establishment of guilds guilds were associations of practitioners who regulated the practice of their craft in a particular area in England the most notable were the worshipful company of Barbers and the Guild of surgeons which eventually merged to form the United company of Barbers and surgeons these guilds set standards for training and practice conducted examinations and awarded licenses to practice they played a crucial role in raising the status of apothecaries and surgeons by enforcing educational standards and maintaining a code of conduct Physicians Physicians during the Renaissance began to have access to a much wider range of medical teex both ancient and contemporary the Revival of interest in classical texts fueled by the humanist movement led to the rediscovery and study of works by ancient authors such as hypocrates in galin these Works were increasingly translated into English making them more accessible to Physicians who did not read Latin or Greek moreover the invention of the printing press revolutionized the spread of medical knowledge Texs that had been rare and expensive became more widely available reducing the cost of books and enabling more Physicians to build up personal libraries and stay informed about developments in medical science across Europe the study of anatomy became a crucial part of Medical Training for Physicians Physicians alongside surgeons began to engage more frequently in dissections often of executed criminals a practice that was legally allowed to improve anatomical knowledge these dissections became public and educational events at times aimed at improving the understanding of the human body among medical professionals the increase in anatomical knowledge not only improved the accuracy of medical diagnoses and treatments but also began to challenge and improve the ancient theories that had dominated ated for centuries Andreas velus Andreas velus was a pionering figure in the study of human anatomy he was a Belgian anatomist and physician Who challenged many of the dominant ideas that had been accepted for centuries his approach was revolutionary because he insisted on performing dissections himself and based his findings on what he observed firsthand rather than on what earlier texts had reported baselius was meticulous in his dissection techniques and emphasized the importance of direct observation baselius published detailed drawings and descriptions of his findings in 1543 in a book called dehum Corpus fabria on the fabric of the human body this provided an extraordinary level of detail and accuracy which corrected many of galin's eror ER errors that had endured due to galin's Reliance on animal rather than human dissections errors in the work of galin identified by velus included the Jawbone galin described the human jawbone as being composed of two bones like in dogs and other animals Theus through his detailed human dissections demonstrated the human jawbone is a single bone not two the septum of the heart gayen had written that the septum contained pores that allowed blood to pass from one side to the other Theus found the septum was in fact solid and did not contain such fores challenging galin's descriptions of blood movement the number of liver loes galin described the liver as having five loes a description based on animal Anatomy Theus clarified that the human liver generally has only two major loes asus's work significantly influenced English medicine particularly in the following ways education asus's emphasis on observed evidence and the study of anatomy inspired changes in the medical curriculum his methods were increasingly used in English medical schools where Anatomy began to be taught using human dissections the status of Surgeons asus's work helped raise the practice of surgery in England matray to a more respected profession that required detailed anatomical knowledge before velus surgeons often had a limited understanding of the body's internal structures which could lead to ineffective or harmful practices the detailed anatomical Knowledge from his text enabled surgeons to perform more precise and safer surgery inspiration felus inspired a generation of English Physicians and anatomists who became leading figures in their own right these individuals furthered the practice of dissection and advanced the study of anatomy in England promoting a more scientific approach to Medicine grade n knowledge the influence of others medical training in England during the Renaissance was also influenced by The Works of other notable figures including Ambrose paray par was a 16th century French surgeon he is most famous for the use of ligature during amputations moving away from the more common and painful practice of cauterizing to sealing wounds with boiling oil P's approach significantly reduce the mortality rate of surgical patients he also developed new surgical instruments and techniques improved the treatment of War wounds and wrote several influential books on surgery heronimus fabus fabus was a 16th century Italian surgeon he made substantial contributions to the understanding of human anatomy particularly by discovering the valves in veins which he detailed in his work on the valves of the veins in 1603 his teachings and writings greatly influenced his students including William Harvey who would later expand on his work to describe the full circulatory system Faus also built the first permanent anatomical theater in Padua significantly advancing medical education hospitals the role and function of hospitals changed during the Renaissance initially medieval hospitals were often more like arms houses providing care primarily for the poor elderly and infirm rather than focusing on medical treatment however during the Renaissance there was a gradual shift towards a more medical approach as hospitals began to focus more on medical treatment including the presence of trained Physicians this meant patients benefited from more specialized medical knowledge and Care the disillusion of the monasteries under Henry VII in the 1530s had a great impact on hospitals as many were attached to monastic communities the closure of these institutions led to a significant decline in the number of hospitals those that remained often struggled with funding and resource shortages which limited their ability to serve the community effectively the Renaissance also saw the emergence of pest houses which were established to isolate and treat people with contagious diseases such as the plague these facilities were an early form of quarantine and were crucial in trying to control the spread of infectious diseases community and Home Care despite the changes in hospital care most medical treatment continued to be administered in the community particularly at home and was predominantly managed by women women were responsible for nursing the sick and managing home remedies which included preparing herbal concoctions and administering care practices passed down through generations in summary during during the Renaissance apothecaries and surgeons received more structured training through apprenticeships and guilds which regulated their practices and enforce educational standards the emphasis on anatomical knowledge led to improved surgical techniques and more accurate medical diagnosis as both surgeons and Physicians engaged in dissections to better understand human anatomy Asus revolutionized the study of anatomy with his detailed dissections and Corrections of galen's Errors his work significantly influenced medical education and the status of surgeons in England hospitals became institutions focused more on medical treatment though the disillusion of monasteries under Henry VII that caused a decline in hospital numbers and resources most Medical Care remained communitybased predominantly managed by women who used traditional herbal remedies to treat various Ms William Harvey case study in this video we are looking at the discoveries made by William Harvey and the methods he used and Harvey's impact on medicine William Harvey was an English physician who made groundbreaking contributions to the understanding of human anatomy and physiology most notably through his discovery of the circulation of blood before Harvey's work the dominant Theory iies about blood circulation were based largely on the writings of Galen who believed that blood was formed in the liver and then flowed outwards to be used as fuel by the body Galen also believed that there were two separate systems for blood William Harvey was an English physician who studied medicine at both the universities of Cambridge and padwa padwa in Italy was one of the leading medical schools in Europe at the time at padaa Harvey had been a pupil of Honus fbus Fus had discovered the valves in veins but had not fully understood their function Harvey's exposure to these findings along with the rigorous scientific training he received inspired him to explore how the blood moved through the body Harvey graduated from padaa in 1602 and on his return to England quickly built a reputation as a physician in 1618 he was a appointed as the physician to King James I and later continued to serve in the Royal Court as the physician to King Charles I his role as Court physician greatly enhanced his status and provided him with the opportunity to continue his research Arvey challenged the theories of galin basing his findings on meticulous observations and experiments in 1628 he published his conclusions in a book on the motion of the heart and and blood Harvey's discoveries blood flow Harvey estimated the amount of blood passing through the heart observing that it was far too great to be used as nourishment in the way galin had described this led him to conclude that the blood must be recirculating rather than being constantly produced valves in veins Harvey observed that the valves in veins allowed blood to flow in Only One Direction which was critical in determining that blood circulates through the body and returns to the heart pumping heart Harvey was able to demonstrate that the heart worked like a pump Contracting rhythmically to push blood through the body he showed that the contraction of the heart forced the blood out into the arteries Harvey's methods Harvey's experiments were innovative for his time his approaches included observation of the heart Harvey observed the action of the heart in various animals noting that the heart contracted at regular intervals and calculating the volume of blood passing through dissection and Viv section Harvey performed dissections on both dead and living animals to observe the actual movement of the heart and blood in particular he chose to study coldblooded animals like frogs because their hearts beat slowly these observations allowed him to see firsthand how blood was propelled out of the heart through contractions and how it moved through the arteries and veins experiments with tornay and ligatures Harvey used ligatures to tie off veins and arteries in live animals demonstrating that blood in the arteries always traveled from the heart and that in the veins it moved towards the heart this was crucial for understanding the directional flow of blood and the role of valves in veins which he showed were critical to the oneway flow of blood back to the heart Harvey's impact Harvey's theory of blood circulation laid the groundwork for modern physiology it also challenged the authority of classical texts and promoted a more experimental observational approach to Medicine however his ideas initially had limited impact on the practice of medicine as they did not offer new treatments or cures for diseases furthermore Harvey's theories contradicted centuries of medical knowledge based on the teachings of Galen galen's ideas were widely accepted by physicians and were the basis of medical education overturning these ideas meant challenging the authority and teachings that many Physicians had built their careers on such radical changes were met with skepticism and resistance in summary William Harvey discovered that blood circulates continuously around the body in a closed loop pumped by the heart challenging the then dominant theories of galin Harvey used meticulous observations dissections and experiments with ligatures and Viv sections to demonstrate the movement of blood and the role of heart contractions and vein valves in blood flow Harvey published his revolutionary findings in deotto cordi or on the motion of the heart and blood in 1628 Harvey's work laid the groundwork for modern physiology promoting an experimental and observational approach to Medicine despite its significance Harvey's Discovery did not immediately change medical practices as it did not provide new treatments and it faced skepticism from those who are dear to traditional medical knowledge Great Plague case study in this video we are looking at key features of the Great Plague including how it affected people the different ideas about its cause and attempts to cure the disease and prevent its spread the Great Plague which struck England in 1665 was one of the last major outbreaks of the Bubonic plague the 1665 epidemic was particularly severe and primarily affected London though it spread to other parts of the country as well it's estimated that the Great Plague killed about 100,000 people in London alone nearly a quarter of the City's population at the time the rapid spread and high mortality rate caused widespread fear and panic among the population ideas about the cause ideas about the cause of the Great Plague in 1665 were largely similar to those at existed during the black death in 1348 during both outbreaks many people linked the disease to Divine punishment astrological influences and miasma demonstrating continuity in explanations for illness across the centuries Divine punishment many saw the disease as divine retribution for sins this view was reinforced by religious leaders who interpreted the plague as God's way of punishing the wickedness of the population astrology an unusual alignment of Mars and Jupiter was sometimes blamed for outbreaks of plague in the 17th century as these celestial events were believed to produce excess moisture or corrupt air which according to the theories of the time could lead to disease Asma Theory the most accepted explanation for the plague in the 17th century was the Asma Theory this theory was in line with people's experiences of the time as plague written areas often did smell terrible due to the lack of Sanitation and the presence of death and Decay treatments during the Great Plague of 1665 people resorted to a variety of methods to try and cure the disease transference this was a treatment based on the belief that the plague could be transferred from the patient to another object being one common method was rubbing the buos with a live chicken the idea was that the disease would transfer from the human to the chicken which would then either die or recover indicating the removal of the disease from the patient another method involved placing items like a toad or a leech over the bubos to draw out the poison from the body this method was based on the theory of balancing the humors which was still widespread in the 17th century Herbal Remedies Herbal Remedies often involve the use of aromatic herbs believed to purify the air and protect against the myasthma thought to be the carrier of disease common herbs included rosemary sage and bay leaves people carried these herbs in Pockets or wore them around their neck and they were also burned in homes to cleanse the air additionally medicinal drinks and pises made from a variety of herbs were used to treat symptoms or strengthen the body against the plague quack doctors quack doctors thed during the plague as they took advantage of public fear and Desperation these self-proclaimed experts often sold cures that were at best ineffective and at worst harmful these included potions amulets and various concoctions their treatments were not based on evidence and and their effectiveness was doubtful prevention Physicians of the time often recommended practices that were thought to ward off the plague including prayer and moral conduct physicians in the church alike recommended prayer and good moral conduct as spiritual protection against the disease reflecting the belief in the plague is a Divine punishment for sin commanders Physicians advis carrying pomanders which were balls or perforated cases filled with aromatic substances like musk or herbs these were believed to purify the air around the bearer and ward off the myasthma believed to carry the plague diet dietary recommendations were also common with an emphasis on avoiding Foods thought to produce bad humors or that were easily corruptible such as raw fruits or vegetables instead eating cooked warm foods and wine was advised to keep the body's humors in Balance plague doctors became a notorious symbol of the period characterized by their beaked math dot with aromatic substances long waxed coats and gloves these outfits were designed to protect them from my asthma and allow them to treat patients directly without touching them or breathing the same air traditional healers and apothecaries often resorted to Herbal Remedies which Incorporated both old and new ingredients commonly used herbs included lavender sage and rosemary healers would recommend these for both internal use and for burning to cleanse the air imports from the Americas like tobacco sugar and Nutmeg were also used in remedies often without any evidence of their effectiveness the response of the authorities the government's response to the Great Plague was much greater than in previous outbreaks like the black death measures included Banning large Gatherings public Gatherings including markets and church services were banned or severely restricted to prevent Mass transmission of the disease sanitation efforts authorities ordered street sweeping and the burning of fires in barrels of tar to drive away the myasthma killing of animals thousands of cats and dogs were killed under the belief that they spread the plague local authorities also implemented strict quarantine measures and other controls to manage the spread of the disease Searchers and wardens Searchers often older women were appointed to inspect the dead and identify plague victims wardens were tasked with enforcing quarantine and other regulations quarantine measures households with confirmed cases were quarantined for 28 days a Red Cross and the phrase Lord have mercy upon us were marked on the doors of affected homes to warn others to stay away Public Health measures local authorities were responsible for enforcing cleanliness and isol measures including overseeing the burial of the dead and the maintenance of public order grade n knowledge e in 1665 the village of e in darbishire became a remarkable example of self-imposed quarantine the plague reached e through a parcel of cloth infested with fleas from London upon realizing the danger the local priest convinced the villagers to voluntarily quarantine themselves to prevent the spread of the disease to neighboring areas The Villages established boundaries around the village that no one would cross and nearby towns left supplies at designated points along these boundaries in exchange for payment left in water filled troughs to disinfect coins although the quarantine resulted in significant loss within e with about a third of the population dying it was successful in containing the plague in summary the Great Plague of 1665 was a severe outbreak of Bubonic plague that killed about 100,000 people in London causing widespread fear and panic people believed the plague was caused by Divine punishment astrological influences and myasthma similar to the beliefs during the Black Death common treatments included transference Herbal Remedies with aromatic herbs and dubious cures from quack doctors methods to prevent the spread included prayer carrying pomanders with aromatic substances dietary changes and the use of protective outfits by plague doctors authorities banned large Gatherings improved sanitation killed animals thought to spread the plague enforced strict quarantines and appointed Searchers and wardens to manage and contain the outbreak GCSE history topic three medicine in 18th and 19th century Britain ideas about the cause of disease and illness in this video we are looking at continuity and change in ideas about the cause of disease and illness Louis past's development of germ Theory and Robert CO's work on microbes and the influence of Pastor an in Britain continuity throughout the 18 Century the myasthma theory remained a dominant explanation for disease the theory endured due to its historical roots in ancient and medieval medicine and because it offered a seemingly plausible explanation linking the spread of disease to visible filth and Decay which were common in the densely populated and often unsanitary cities of the time change on the other hand the 18th century also saw changes in the understanding of disease as seen in the development of the theory of spontaneous generation this was the idea that life could arise from decaying matter in the context of disease it was thought to explain the origin of diseases by suggesting that microorganisms could emerge spontaneously from Material such as rotting vegetables or dead animals the advancements in microscope technology in the 18th century played a crucial role in the development of theories like spontaneous generation as microscope grapes improved scientists were able to observe microorganisms for the first time these observations were initially interpreted to support the theory of spontaneous generation this led to a partial shift away from the miasma Theory as some scientists began to consider the role of these microorganisms in causing disease Louie past past was a French chemist primarily working in the food and drink industry in the 1850s he started started studying fermentation which is essential for making beer and wine he found that microorganisms like yeast were responsible for fermentation this led him to develop pasturization pasteurization is a process of heating liquids like milk and wine to kill harmful bacteria and prevent spoilage past's interest in fermentation led him to explore the causes of disease in 1861 he published germ Theory in a paper that provided crucial evidence against the theory of spontaneous generation germ Theory through experimentation Pastor established the four basic principles of germ Theory lastly that the air around us is not just empty space it actually contains tiny living organisms which we can't see with our eyes alone secondly when these microbes land on something like food or dead material they can cause it to Decay or rot this process is why food spoils if it's not stored properly thirdly these tiny organisms or microbes are not spread out evenly in the air some places might have more microbes than others depending on conditions like cleanliness humidity and other environmental factors and fourthly you can destroy microbes by heating them to a high enough temperature this is why boiling water cooking food properly and sterilizing medical instruments with heat can help prevent diseases past's germ Theory had a significant immediate impact by discrediting long-held beliefs about the causes of disease specifically the theory of spontaneous generation past's research showed instead that diseases were caused by microorganisms that originated from other living organisms not taneously however he was not able to identify the specific microorganisms that caused individual diseases grade nine knowledge the swan neck flask experiment past's most famous experiment which directly contributed to the development of germ theory was the swan neck flask experiment he designed an experiment to demonstrate that microorganisms did not arrive spontaneously as the dominant theory of spontaneous generation suggested past filled a series of flasks with broth and fitted them with long curved necks that allowed air to enter But prevented Airborne microorganisms from reaching the broth he then boiled the broth to kill any existing microorganisms the flasks were left undisturbed and the broth remained free of microbial growth for an extended period proving that without the introduction of microorganisms from the environment no life spontaneously arose in the sterile broth when the necks of the flasks were broken exposing the broth directly to Air and dust microbial growth quickly began demonstrating that microorganisms in the air were responsible for contaminating the broth Robert Co was a German scientist responsible for the identification of major disease causing bacteria and significantly advancing the understanding of infectious diseases he discovered the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis in 1882 and the one that causes chera in 1883 building on Cox's groundbreaking methods other scientists later identified the bacteria that caused dip theia in 1884 pneumonia in 1886 menitis in 1887 and the plague in 1894 Cox's methods were groundbreaking at the time and continue to be used today in recognition of his important contributions to Medical Science he was awarded the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1905 and is considered to be the father of bacteriology Co also developed several Innovative methods to study microorganisms these included the use of AAR jelly in a Petri dish Co began using AAR jelly to grow bacteria in a lab AAR is a gel-like substance that provides an environment where microorganisms can multiply he poured these AAR cultures into shallow circular dishes now known as Petri dishes which were named after his assistant which made observing the growth and behavior of bacteria much easier the use of industrial dyes to stain bacteria K also pioneered the use of dyes to stain bacteria which made them more visible under a microscope grade n knowledge Cox's methods in publishing his findings Co provided a series of guidelines that could be used by scientists to identify whether a specific microb causes a disease these steps are number one the microorganism must be found in all cases of the disease number two the microorganism must be isolated from a diseased body and grown in pure culture which means in controlled conditions number three the cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy body and number four the microorganism must be taken out again from the diseased body and shown to be exactly the same as the original microorganism that was suspected of causing the disease Cox's study of Anthrax and cattle is a classic example of his method in action he was able to isolate the bacteria that caused the disease throw it in a laboratory and then use it to infect healthy animals to reproduce the disease his work provided a clear model of how diseases spread and how they could be controled influence of Pastor and K Louie pter and Robert K transformed the understanding of the cause of disease however despite the groundbreaking nature of germ Theory its acceptance was not immediately widespread some members of the British medical community such as the prominent Dr Henry Bastion remain strongly in favor of spontaneous generation basan continued to argue for spontaneous generation well into the late 19th century even after significant evidence to the country from pastor and Cox's experiments the British government's initial response to Cox discoveries also reflected skepticism during a chera outbreak in Kolkata in the 1880s the British government largely ignored Robert Cox's identification of the Cher bacterium as the cause of the disease this reluctance stemmed from firmly held beliefs in my Asma Theory which contributed to the delay in Water Sanitation measures that could have prevented the further spread of chora among the supporters of germ theory was Joseph lster influenced by pastor's research on microorganisms lster became convinced that infections in surgical wounds were caused by Airborne microorganisms in response he pioneered the use of carbolic acid as an anti septic to stabilize surgical instruments and clean wounds which significantly reduced infections and made surgery safer for patients List's antiseptic method introduced in the 1860s was one of the first practical applications of germ theory in medicine over time as the evidence supporting germ Theory grew it gained broader acceptance this influenced medical practices Public Health policies and improvements in Sanitation throughout Britain in summary throughout the 18th century the miasma Theory which linked disease to bad smells from filth and Decay remained a dominant explanation the 18th century also saw the development of the theory of spontaneous generation which suggested that microorganisms could arise from decaying matter in 1861 Lou pter disproved spontaneous generation and developed germ Theory Prov proving that microorganisms from the air cause Decay and disease Robert C identified the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis and chera and developed Innovative methods to study microorganisms significantly advancing microbiology despite initial resistance germ Theory gained Acceptance in Britain influencing medical practices and public health policies with Joseph liser pioneering antiseptic surgery based on pastor's research approaches to prevention in this video we are looking at the development and use of vaccinations and the reasons for and key features of the public health act 1875 vaccinations Louie pastur building on his germ Theory began the development of vaccines his first major success with with chicken Cola in the 1870s by discovering that old bacterial cultures lost their vivence he found that these weakened bacteria could be used to inoculate healthy chickens and protect them from the disease encouraged by this pastur applied similar principles to develop vaccines for Anthrax and rabies for rabies he grew the virus in rabbits and then weakened it by drying the infected nerve tissue which when given to a bitten person could prevent the onset of the disease the basic principle behind vaccination involves introducing a weakened or killed form of the disease causing microorganism into the body this weakened version is not strong enough to cause the disease but is sufficient to stimulate the immune system to respond the immune system produces antibodies Against The Invader and these antibodies remain in the body if the individual is later exposed to the actual disease the immune system can quickly recognize and fight it preventing the disease from developing Robert Cox's research to identify specific microbes responsible for diseases developed pastor's work his methods and findings helped establish a firmer scientific basis for developing vaccines by 1890 Emil Von bearing had developed vaccines against teus and diptheria marking significant milestones in medicine he used toxins produced by the bacteria rather than the bacteria themselves to create immunity this approach opened new ways to develop vaccines by the turn of the 20th century scientists were working to develop vaccines for a range of diseases the theories provided by Pastor an C along with technological advancements and a deeper understanding of microbiology and Immunology propelled this effort forward Public Health act 1875 the public health Act of 1875 was a key key piece of legislation in the history of Public Health in Britain before the 1800s the British government largely maintained a lass Fair attitude with minimal involvement in the day-to-day lives of the population including in areas like public health this approach was rooted in the belief that individual choices were better than government interventions reasons for the ACT several factors led to a change in this attitude during the 19th century expanded electorate the extension of the vote meant that more men had a voice in government including the working classes who were most affected by public health issues epidemics repeated outbreaks of chalera and other infectious diseases highlighted the need for public health reforms these epidemics demonstrated that poor sanitary conditions were a problem that affected all classes not just the poor the great stink of 1858 this event where the smell from the river temps became unbearable largely due to sewage contamination brought public health concerns directly to the doorstep of parliament emphasizing the urgent need for significant sanitation reform germ Theory the acceptance of germ Theory provided a scientific basis for understanding how diseases were spread stressing further the importance of sanitary reforms key individuals Edwin Chadwick a social reformer who argued that poor sanitary conditions were directly linked to disease his report in 1852 helped lay the groundwork for the first Public Health act in 1848 johon snow his work during the 1854 Cera outbreak in in SoHo London where he linked the disease to contaminated water sources provided evidence supporting the need for improved water supply and waste management the public health Act of 1875 this act built on previous legislation and introduced responsibilities that were compulsory for local authorities to fulfill including sanitation local authorities had to ensure proper drainage sewage and waste disposal building regulations the ACT sets standards for new housing including requirements for running water and internal drainage food safety it contained measures to prevent Food and Drugs from being tampered with in a way that could cause harm and Disease Control the ACT required local authorities to be proactive in preventing the spread of disease including by providing clean water grade nine knowledge Edwin Chadwick Edwin Chadwick was an important figure in the early 19th century Public Health movement his groundbreaking research culminated in the publication of an influential report in 1842 titled report on the sanitary conditions of the laboring population of Great Britain this highlighted the dire state of urban living conditions and the urgent need for public health reforms Chadwick's report Drew direct connections between poor sanitary conditions disease occurrence and economic productivity by collecting extensive data he demonstrated that inadequate sewage and Waste Disposal Systems contaminated water supplies and overcrowded living conditions led to increased mortality and morbidity rates among the working class his work emphasized that improving Public Health could extend life expectancy and enhance economic output by reducing disease a firm believer in the miasma theory of disease Chadwick argued for the construction of modern sewer systems and the implementation of waste removal services as crucial measures to prevent disease its findings and the recommendations significantly influenced Public Health policy and led to the creation of the first Public Health Act in 1848 in summary Lou pastur pioneered vaccines for chicken CAA Anthrax and rabies by using weakened microorganisms to stimulate immunity introducing weakened or killed microbes to the body triggers the immune system to produce antibodies offering future disease protection Robert C identified disease causing bacteria and Emil V bearing developed vaccines for tanus and dip theia us using bacterial toxins Public Health Act of 1875 made it compulsory for local authorities to ensure proper sanitation building standards food safety and Disease Control influenced by epidemics and scientific discoveries contributions from Edwin Chadwick Jon Snow and the acceptance of germ Theory drove significant Public Health reforms and the development of vaccines approaches to treatment in this video we are looking at the extent of change in treatment the development of anesthetics and antiseptics and the impact of anesthetic and antiseptics on surgery extent of Change by 1900 medical treatment in Britain was transforming G mainly to the widespread acceptance of germ Theory the recognition that many diseases were caused by micro organisms encouraged efforts to develop treatments aimed at targeting these newly identified germs despite these advancements the development of new treatments took considerable time as a result many people continued to rely on traditional herbal remedies for everyday illnesses these remedies passed down through generations were more accessible and better trusted by the general public than the emerging treatments in addition there was still the widespread use of quack remedies these treatments were often sold by self-styled doctors and healers who lacked formal medical training and exploited public fears about health quack remedies ranged widely in nature often consisting of Potions Pills and ointments it was not uncommon for them to contain addictive or dangerous substances like opium alcohol and Mercury misleadingly advertised as miracle cures surgical treatment having surgery before the 19th century was incredibly risky it is estimated that as many as 80% of surgical patients in the early 1800s died the three main dangers faced at this time were excessive blood loss excruciating pain and uncontrolled infection this combination of factors made surgery a last resort undertaken only in Desperate situations however in the 19th century two of these dangers were lessened with advancements in anesthetics and antiseptics the development of anesthetics early attempts to discover effective anesthetics included the use of nitrous oxide in ether nitrous oxide commonly known as Laughing Gas was experimented with by Humphrey Davey at the end of the 18th century with suggestions that it could be used in operations the first successful public demonstration of ether as an anesthetic was conducted by William Morton in 1846 showing that surgery could be performed without causing pain to the patient ether quickly gained popularity due to its Effectiveness in rendering patients unconscious during operations thus easing pain James sinon a Scottish doctor was instrumental in advancing the use of anesthetics in his quest to find a better alternative to Ether which was irritating to the lungs and flammable Simpson began experimenting with different substances in 1847 he discovered the anesthetic properties of chloroform a chemical that proved to be stronger and more pleasant to inhale than ether Simpson first used chloroform on humans in his practice for child birth which was controversial at the time particularly due to religious objections to the use of pain relief in labor however its successful application in reducing child birth pain helped to popularize chloroform for wider surgical use this was significantly aided by Queen Victoria's use of chloroform during the delivery of her eighth child in 1853 administered by Dr Jon Snow consequently chloroform became widely accepted and was used extensively by the late 1850s the development of chloroform by James sson broadened the possibilities for surgical treatment in 1866 Simpson became the first person to be kned for services to Medicine grade n knowledge Robert Lon Robert Lon who was born at the end of the 18th century was a surgeon known not only for his exceptional surgical skills but also for his remarkable speed known as the fastest knife in the West End listen famously set a record by completing an amputation in Just 2 and 1 half minutes from the first incision to the final closure of the wound the ability to perform surgeries rapidly was crucial in a time before anesthetics a speed significantly reduced a patient's pain and the risk of shock liston's surgical performances were often carried out in front of audiences hence the name operating theater his dramatic and confident manner not only captivated those who watched but also demonstrated the potential and importance of surgical ability and Innovation Liston is also credited with being one of the first surgeons formerly to use ether as an anesthetic in England in 1846 observing this operation were two medical students James Simpson and Joseph liser both of whom were inspired by Liston to pursue research that would revolutionize surgery and shape modern surgical practices the development of antiseptics infection such a problem in surgery at the start of the 19th century because surgical environments were not sterile and the idea of microbes causing infection was not yet accepted surgeons operated in unsanitary conditions often without cleaning their instruments or even their hands between patients leading to high rates of infection Joseph liser an English surgeon influenced by Louis past's research theorized that microorganisms could also be responsible for surgical infection ction s seeking a way to eliminate this risk Lista turned to carbolic acid a chemical already used in sewage treatments in 1865 Lista successfully applied carbolic acid for the first time to treat an open fracture in an 11-year-old boy who remarkably recovered without developing the usual post-operative infection encouraged by these results liser continued to refine his anti-ep septic method he developed a spray to disperse cobic acid over the surgical area and used it to sterilize surgical instruments incisions and dressings List's groundbreaking results were published in the Lancet in 1867 a leading medical journal his Publications detailed his methods and outcomes persuading many other surgeons to adopt antiseptic techniques he is remembered as being the father of modern surgery developments in surgery during the 19th century were met with a mixed response from the medical profession which meant that the widespread adoption of anesthetics and antiseptics took time impact on surgery positive effects reducing shock the development of anesthetics meant that patients no longer had to endure the excruciating pain of surgery which reduced the likelihood of shock a common and often fatal resp response to overwhelming pain expansion of surgery with patients unconscious surgeons could operate with greater precision and attention to detail this allowed for improved surgical techniques as well as more complex and lengthy operations surgery's reputation as antiseptic surgery became more widespread and its benefits became evident surgery itself was viewed as a safer more reliable form of treatment aseptic surgery List's methods laid the groundwork for the aseptic techniques that are standard in surgery today by 1900 instruments were being steam cleaned operating rooms had washable walls and floors and surgeons were wearing sterile gowns and gloves negative effects risk of overdose or underdose the administration of anesthetics came with risks incorrect dosages could lead to patients not waking up at all or Awakening during the procedure a traumatic experience that could lead to severe pain and distress health risks some anesthetics could damage the heart occasionally leading to cardiac arrest and death even in otherwise healthy patients practical problems one issue with carbolic acid was its harshness on both the surgeons and patients skin it could cause drying and soreness leading some surgeons to argue that it made wounds worse rather than healing them blood loss deeper and lengthier operations meant that blood loss became an even bigger problem this would not be solved until the 20th century in summary the acceptance of germ Theory led to efforts to Target germs with new treatments but traditional and crack remedies remained popular due to accessibility and mistrust in new methods early anesthetics included nitrous oxide in ether James Simpson discovered chloroform in 1847 popularized by Queen Victoria's use in child birth making surgery less painful Joseph liser influenced by germ theory used carbolic acid to prevent infections starting in 1865 his methods led to widespread adoption of antiseptic techniques reducing Surgical mortality rates anesthetics and antiseptics revolutionize surgery by reducing pain infections and shock they allowed for more complex surgeries and improved surgical Precision contributing to safer modern surgical practices despite advancements issues such as incorrect anesthetic dosages health risks harsh effects of carbolic acid and unresolved problems with blood loss persisted caring for the sick in this video we are looking at improvements in hospital care and the work and impact of Florence Nightingale hospital care in 1700 there were only five hospitals in the whole country and all of these are in London the disillusion of the monasteries under Henry VII during the 1530s had seen most hospitals which had been attached to monastic institutions closed during the 18th century there was a notable expansion in hospital care largely fueled by the philanthropy of wealthy individuals such as guy's Hospital in London that was established in 1720 and Adam Brook's Hospital in Cambridge that was established in 1766 new hospitals were established to cater primarily to the deserving poor respectable workingclass people who were seen as worthy of Charity Rich individuals continued to receive treatment at home however conditions Within These hospitals were often poor they were typically overcrowded and unsanitary which facilitated spread of infections among patients medical professionals including doctors and untrain nurses were present but the level of care varied significantly by the end of the 19th century hospitals had transformed dramatically influenced by The Germ theory of disease and the pioneer in work of figures like Florence Nightingale hospitals began to emphasize the importance of cleanliness and infection control architectural designs evolved to include separate Wards and specialized departments to manage different types of illnesses more effectively there was also a clear shift towards a more professional approach to hospital management and Medical Care the presence of trained doctors and nurses became common and nursing itself became a recognized profession with rigorous training programs grade n knowledge types of Hospital the 18th and 19th centuries saw the development of different categories of hospitals in Britain catering to specific types of patients and illnesses curable hospitals curable hospitals admitted patients who suffered from illnesses considered treatable the focus was on providing care and treatment M with the expectation of recovery incurable hospitals in contrast incurable hospitals were relatively few and cated for patients who are not accepted by curable hospitals these included those with terminal illnesses severe mental health issues or contagious diseases like small pox these hospitals focused on providing comfort and basic care rather than active treatment lying in hospitals lying in hospitals emerged to provide care for poor women during childbirth these facilities were important in a time when maternal and infant mortality rates were high due to infections and poor sanitary conditions despite the availability of such hospitals the majority of women prefer to give birth at home often due to the pered safety and comfort of familiar surroundings specialist hospitals from the mid 19th century onwards there was a significant rise in specialist hospitals which provided opportunities for doctors to focus on specific types of disease or patient groups by the end of the 19th century London in particular boasted a variety of specialist hospitals including those dedicated to treating specific diseases like tuberculosis hospitals focusing on care for particular parts of the body such as the ear nose and throat and those that cater exclusively for certain groups like women or children Florence Nightingale Florence Nightingale was born into a wealthy family and in defiance of what was expected of a middle class woman in the 19th century was determined from a young agid to pursue a career in nursing she received formal nursing training in Germany and claimed to be driven by a strong sense of Duty and a calling she described as a Divine voice during the Crimean War in the 1850s Nightingale was apped by the horrific conditions soldiers faced in military hospitals upon her arrival at the British base Hospital in scutari she implemented rigorous sanitation practices this included improvements in hygiene the establishment of a diet kitchen laundry facilities and the organization of supplies these changes drastically reduced the mortality rate rate of wounded soldiers from approximately 40% to just 2% within 6 months her statistical analysis and Relentless Drive significantly improved the quality of care and highlighted the critical role of Nursing and sanitary practices in patient recovery following her return from the Crimea Nightingale continued to campaign for Better Health Care her experience has led her to focus on Hospital design promoting The Pavilion plan a design which emphasized better ventilation and separated sanitary facilities to combat infection this approach became a model for Hospital construction worldwide moreover Nightingale was instrumental in transforming nursing into a respectable profession for women in 1860 she established the Nightingale School for nurses at St Thomas's Hospital in London this institution was among the first official nursing schools setting higher standards for nursing education in practice the training emphasized rigorous education Hands-On patient care and a moral commitment to Health Care laying the groundwork for professional nursing in summary in 1700 only five hospitals existed in England all in London as many as closed due to the dis solusion of the monasteries by Henry VII the 18th century saw a rise in hospitals funded by wealthy individuals to serve the deserving poor but these hospitals were often overcrowded and unsanitary by the late 19th century hospitals improved significantly with better hygiene influenced by germ Theory and Florence nightingale's work leading to specialized departments and Professional Management Florence Nightingale trans transformed nursing during the Crimean War by implementing sanitation practices drastically reducing Soldier mortality and later founded the Nightingale School for nurses establishing nursing as a respected profession nightingale's hospitals designs and focus on cleanliness became models worldwide emphasizing better ventilation and infection control Edward Jenner and vaccination case study in this video we are looking at the work of Edward Jenner and his discovery of the small pox vaccine and the impact of the small poox vaccine small poox was a devastating disease in 18th century Britain causing frequent epidemics that resulted in high mortality and severe morbidity which could leave survivors blinded and disfigured the practice of inoculation had been developed as a form of disease prevention this involved deliberately infecting a person with small pox in the hope of causing a mild case of the disease that would lead to immunity despite its use inoculation was risky and could sometimes lead to severe or fatal cases Edward Jenner Edward Jenner an English physician made a Monumental contribution to medicine with his development of the small pox vaccine the world's first vaccine born in 1749 in gler Shere Jenna trained in London before returning to his home county to work as a general practitioner discovery of the small pox vaccine Jenna observed that Dairy Maids who had contracted cowpox a much milder disease and small pox seemed to be immune to the more severe small pox based on this observation he theorized that cowpox could create immunity to small pox in 179 six Jenna tested this Theory by inoculating James fits an 8-year-old boy with material taken from cowpox saws on a dairy maid's hands fips developed a mild case of cowpox and recovered subsequently Jenna exposed him to small poox material and fips did not develop the disease proving that the cowpox infection had indeed made him immune to small pox Jenna's findings were revolutionary he documented his research and results in a paper titled an inquiry into the causes and effects of the variola vaccin published in 1798 in this document he not only shared his groundbreaking results but also included detailed guidance that other doctors could follow thus enabling his work to be copied and the vaccine to be widely used Jenner's method was later called vaccination taken from the Latin word for cow backa shortterm impact by 1800 Jenna's Discovery had led to the vaccination of approximately 100,000 people worldwide despite its evident Effectiveness the uptake of the vaccine in Britain was slower this reluctance was fueled by opposition from several areas the church viewed vaccination as interference with Divine will and unchristian because it came from an animal inoculators saw the new vaccine as a threat to their livelihood and the Royal Society and other scientific bodies initially expressed skepticism towards Jenner's findings which delayed broader scientific backing this resistance slowed the initial use of the vaccine within Britain even as it began to gain Acceptance in other parts of Europe and America for inance in 1806 it gained the backing of the French Emperor Napoleon bonapart and the American president Thomas Jefferson grade n knowledge opposition to vaccination as vaccination became more widespread and eventually compulsory resistance to it grew particularly in the form of organized movements and anti-vaccination literature by the mid 19th century the the opposition became more structured with the formation of groups such as the anti vaccination league and the anti-omp vaccination League these groups were formed in response to laws that made small poox vaccination compulsory which many people saw as an infringement on personal Liberty and bodily autonomy the resistance was also fueled by a growing body of literature in the 1870s and 1880s that criticized vaccination for an increasingly literate population pamphlets with titles such as vaccination a curse and horrors of vaccination were widely circulated these Publications argued against the effectiveness and safety of vaccinations often quoting cases of vaccination failures or highlighting severe orbe it rare complications from the vaccine these Publications and organizations played a significant role in shaping public opinion against vaccination long-term impact the long-term impact of the small poox vaccine became more apparent as attitudes in society shifted and governmental support increased critical Milestones included 1840 the British government began to back vaccination more strongly providing it free for children 1852 vaccination against smallpox was made compulsory for infants up to 3 months old 1867 the age requirement for compulsory vaccination was extended to 14 years old with penalties added for a fusal 1872 the government enforced compulsory vaccination these measures led to dramatic decline in small pox cases across Britain after 1872 compulsory vac ation for small pox in Britain ended in 1948 and in 1978 the World Health Organization announced that the virus had been eradicated despite the success in controlling and eventually eradicating smpx Jenner's vaccine did not immediately lead to the development of further vaccines it took several decades before the next major vaccine arabes was developed by Louie pastur importantly subsequent vaccines did not all work on the same Principle as Jenner's while Jenner used a related but less dangerous virus to give immunity to small pox later vaccines use a variety of different methods including killed or weakened versions of the disease causing microbes in summary 18th century Britain small pox caused High death rates and severe complications inoculation a risky method of disease vention involved infecting individuals with small pox to build immunity Edward Jenner observed that Dairy Maids who contracted cowpox were immune to small pox in 1796 he tested this by inoculating a boy with cowpox who then became immune to small pox leading to the first vaccine Jenna published his findings in 1798 providing guidance for other doctors despite its Effectiveness Jenna's vaccine based opposition from the church inoculators and scientific bodies slowing its adoption in Britain although it gained support in Europe and America over time government support for vaccination grew leading to compulsory vaccination laws in Britain by 1978 small pox was eradicated globally though the development of further vaccines took decades fighting colera in London case study in in this video we are looking at attempts to prevent the spread of chera Jon Snow's investigation during the 1854 epidemic and the significance of snow and the Broad Street pump during the 19th century chera emerged as a significant Public Health threat in Britain the disease characterized by severe diarrhea vomiting and dehydration could rapidly progress to death if untreated the intense dehydration caused victim's skin to turn blue earning chera the Grim nickname blue death Kera arrived in Britain by a trade routs from Asia with major outbreaks occurring in 1831 1848 and 1853 these epidemics claimed tens of thousands of lives and created Widespread Panic the rapidity and severity of the outbreaks overwhelmed Public Health and Medical Services worsening the fear and helplessness felt by the population attempts to prevent the spread during this period the dominant belief was that cholera was spread through my asthma consequently efforts to combat chera outbreaks Focus largely on sanitary measures such as cleaning streets removing visible filth and improving General cleanliness these measures were beneficial for overall Urban Sanitation little to prevent the spread of chaa which is transmitted primarily through contaminated water John Snow's investigation johon snow celebrated as London's leading anst played a key role in changing the understanding of chera transmission during the 1854 epidemic snow had moved to Soho in 1836 placing him near the center of the chera crisis when it struck the area in 1854 snow was skeptical of the dominant miasma theory that linked chera to bad air based on his observations and knowledge of Cher's symptoms he suspected a waterborne cause to investigate he meticulously mapped the Cher cases in SoHo creating a detailed spot map that Illustrated where each victim lived and died this revealed that over 500 fatal cases occurred within 200 M of the Broad Street water pump suggesting a strong correlation between the water source and the outbreak furthermore snow noted that workers at a local Brewery were not affected by the cha outbreak he discovered that these workers drank beer which undergoes a boiling process during production instead of water from the nearby pump and also had access to a separate water supply for other uses another striking p piece of evidence came from the case of a woman living in Hamstead several miles north of Soho who died of chera upon investigation snow learned that she had a strong preference for the water from the Broad Street pump having bottles of it brought to her daily this case further supported his theory that the water from this particular pump was contaminated armed with this evidence snow was able to convince the local authorities to remove the handle from the Broad Street pump which led to a rapid decrease in new cases later it was discovered that the well had been contaminated by sewage from a nearby cracked thesit proving Snow's theory that chera was waterborne significance snow presented his findings to a House of Commons committee In 1855 demonstrating how the removal of the handle from the Broad Street pump had led to a marked decline in color cases this presentation played a key role in persuading the government of the need for a complete overhaul of London's sanitation system inspired by Snow's evidence Joseph basetti plannned a new sewer system that began Construction in 1860 and was completed in 1875 this development was instrumental in preventing further Cher outbreaks and contributed to the enactment of Public Health Act of 18 1975 which sought to improve sanitary conditions across Britain however despite Snow's success in controlling the Coler outbreak many in the scientific community and Beyond continued to reject his findings due to the enduring belief in myasthma furthermore there was a lack of direct scientific evidence to confirm Snow's Theory at the time it wasn't until the development of germ Theory by Louie pastur in 1861 and the subsequent isol of the chera bacteria by Robert Co in 1883 the snow's observations were fully understood in summary po caused severe dehydration and death spreading in Britain via contaminated water early efforts focused on sanitation based on the mistaken miasma theory in 1854 Jon Snow mapped Cola cases in SoHo and linked the outbreak to the Broad Street water pump challenging the miasma Theory and suggesting waterborne transmission Snow's map showed over 500 cases near the Broad Street pump he noted that Brewery workers were unaffected as they drank beer and a Hamstead woman died after drinking water from the pump snow convinced authorities to remove the Broad Street pump handle leading to a rapid decline in Cher cases later Trace to contamination from a nearby cesspit Snow's work influenced Public Health policy leading to the construction of a new sewer system by Joseph baletti and the public health Act of 1875 his theory was later proven by germ Theory and the discovery of Cholera bacteria GCSE history topic four medicine in modern Britain ideas about the cause of disease and illness in this video we are looking at the development of gentics the impact of lifestyle choices on health and improvements in diagnosis and the impact of the availability of blood tests scans and monitors the development of genetics early theories and discoveries around 1900 scientists proposed that a specific substance within human cells was responsible for Passing genetic information from parents to children this included the transmission of hereditary diseases they believed that this substance controlled characteristics and could explain why certain diseases occurred in families across Generations Breakthrough by Crick and Watson the major breakthrough in genetics came with the work of two scientists James Watson and Francis Crick using crucial x-ray defraction images provided by rosin Franklin and Maurice Wilkins they were able to build a model of DNA the substance carrying genetic information in 1953 they discovered that DNA has a double helix shape resembling a twisted ladder this structure explained how DNA could unzip itself into two strands Each of which could be used as a template to make a new matching strand this unzipping and copying process is essential for cell division and reproduction ensuring the genetic information is accurately passed onto the Next Generation Watson and Crick published their findings in 1953 revealing that the structure of DNA could be taken apart and studied this opened up possibilities for scientists to identify specific parts of DNA that cause tatry diseases for example diseases like hemophilia and cystic fibrosis are caused by mutations in specific genes the Human Genome Project building on these discoveries the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 this ambitious project aimed to map all the genes in the human genome by identifying and mapping every Gene scientists HED to better understand how genes work together and how they contributed to health and disease the project was completed in 2003 providing a comprehensive blueprint of the human genetic code impact on medicine the development of genetics has had important implications for medicine understanding the genetic causes of diseases has led to better Diagnostics more targeted treatments and the possibility of gene therapy where faulty genes are replaced or repaired this knowledge helps doctors predict an individual's risk of developing certain diseases and tailor treatments to each person's genetic makeup grade nine knowledge the development of the microscope the first simple microscopes which use just one lens were developed in the Netherlands one of the most notable figures in the early development of the microscope was Anthony van Len hoook a Dutch scientist in the 17th century he improved the design of these simple microscopes and was the first to observe and describe microscopic organisms like bacteria sperm cells and blood cells lven hooks microscopes could magnify objects up to 300 times their actual size in the late 17th century Robert hook an English scientist improved the microscope further by adding an additional lens creating what is known as the compound microscope this allowed for even greater magnification and resolution hook published a book called micrographia in 1665 which included detailed illustrations of observations made with his microscope including plants insects and fungi his work laid the foundation for microbiology and cell biology the development of the electron microscope in the 1930s by Ernst ruser and Max null marked a significant advancement unlike traditional microscopes that use light known as Optical microscopes electron microscopes use beams of electrons to create an image of the specimen this technology provides much higher resolution and magnification allowing scientists to see much smaller structures in finer detail up to the level of individual atoms the electron microscope played a crucial role in the understanding of DNA structure while Franklin's x-ray defraction images which were critical for Watson and cric's model of DNA were not taken with an electron microscope the electron microscope has been invaluable in later DNA studies allowing scientists to visualize the arrangement of DNA strands and understand more about genetic material and Its Behavior within cells the impact of lifestyle choices on health the understanding of how lifestyle choices impact Health has changed significantly throughout the 20th century smoking in the 1950s major scientific studies began to reveal the dangers of smoking research showed a clear link between smoking and lung cancer as well as heart disease stroke and a variety of other health problems this was a major shift in previous decades when smoking was often advertised as glamorous and even beneficial to health the discovery led to Public Health campaigns aimed at reducing smoking rates and preventing young people from starting warning labels on cigarette packages and smoking bands in public places are direct results of this increased awareness healthy diet throughout the 20th century the impact of diet on health became more evident scientists found that a diet high in sugars and other fats could lead to obesity diabetes heart disease and other serious conditions this understanding emphasized the importance of a balanced diet rich in fruits vegetables whole grains and lean proteins Public Health initiatives have focused on educating people about the benefits of healthy eating habits and the risks of poor diet choices such as fast food which is often high in calories but low in nutritional value alcohol consumption research has shown that excessive alcohol consumption can lead to a range of health issues including liver disease heart problems and an increased risk of accidents and injuries it can also have a negative impact on Mental Health contributing to conditions like depression and anxiety in response there have been efforts to promote responsible drinking with guidelines on safe alcohol limits and campaigns to raise awareness of alcohol rated health risks drug use the use of illegal drugs or the misuse of prescription medications poses significant health risks including addiction overdose and long-term damage to the brain and body the 20th century saw increased efforts to educate the public about these dangers and to provide support and treatment for those struggling with addiction drug education programs in schools and community-based initiatives are part of these efforts use of sunbeds later in the 20th century the risks associated with excessive exposure to UV radiation became clearer this includes using sunbeds which can increase the risk of skin cancer including melanoma the most serious type awareness campaigns and regulations about sunbed use have been introduced particularly focusing on discouraging use by young people who are at a higher risk of long-term damage improvements in diagnosis since 1900 advancements in medical technologies have significantly improved the diagnosis of diseases allowing doctors to detect health issues more accurately and earlier these Technologies include blood tests these tests help doctors find out what's going on inside your body by checking what's in your blood they can spot diseases like infections or even diabetes early which make makes them easier to treat x-rays introduced in the late 1890s x-rays use electromagnetic radiation to create images of the inside of the body they help doctors see bones and certain body tissues making them essential for diagnosing fractures lung problems and dental issues MRI scans or magnetic resonance imaging developed in the 1970s MRI scans use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the body's organs and tissues they're particularly useful for diagnosing brain tumors spinal issues and Joint disorders CT scans or computed tomography available since the 1970s CT scans combine multiple x-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional views of the body they provide more detailed information than regular xray way especially for detecting cancers internal injuries and abnormalities in the body ultrasound scans using highfrequency sound waves ultrasound scans create images of the inside of the body commonly used in pregnancy to check on the developing baby they also used to examine organs like the heart liver and kidneys to detect conditions such as tumors and blockages endoscopes these are thin flexible tubes with a light and camera at the end introduced extensively in the 20th century endoscopes allow doctors to look inside the body's passages and organs crucial for diagnosing gastrointestinal diseases cancers and Performing minor surgeries ECGs or electrocardiograms developed in the early 1900s ECGs record the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time they are used to detect heart conditions monitor heart health and check the heart's Rhythm and electrical activity blood pressure monitoring keeping an eye on blood pressure is crucial because high blood pressure can lead to serious issues like heart attacks but often doesn't have clear symptoms regular checkups help manage and treat this condition effectively blood sugar monitoring this is especially important for people with diabetes it helps them keep track of their blood sugar levels to avoid health problems and adjust their diet or medication as needed in summary early 20th century scientists identified DNA as the genetic material in 1953 Watson and Crick discovered its double helix structure explaining gene replication and inheritance the Human Genome Project was completed in 2003 and mapped all human genes providing insights into how genes influence health and disease improving Diagnostics and treatments genetic understanding has led to better Diagnostics targeted treatments and gene therapy allowing personalized Medical Care based on individual genetic profiles researches link smoking or Diet excessive alcohol drug use and UV exposure to various health issues leading to Public Health campaigns and regulations to lessen these risks Technologies like blood tests x-rays MRIS CT scans ultrasounds endoscopes ECGs and blood pressure and sugar monitors have greatly improved early and accurate disease diagnosis enhancing treatment outcomes approaches to prevention in this video we are looking at new approaches to prevention in the modern era including Mass vaccinations and government lifestyle campaigns since 1900 Britain has seen significant advances in approaches to preventing diseases largely due to government action and a strong commitment to Public Health this commitment helps to ease the burden on the NHS and improves the quality of life for individuals throughout the country Mass vaccinations one of the most effective preventative strategies in public health has been the introduction of mass vaccination programs since launching the first widespread vaccine against diptheria in 1942 the UK government has imp implemented various National immunization programs aimed at controlling and preventing serious diseases for example vaccines for polio and hooping cough were introduced in the 1950s both diseases can cause severe respiratory issues and could be life-threatening especially in children measles and rebella vaccines were rolled out in 1968 and 1970 respectively targeting viruses that can lead to serious complications such as pneumonia brain inflammation and birth defects more recent vaccinations like those for HPV which can lead to cervical cancer and covid-19 known for causing severe respiratory issues and widespread death have continued this trend these vaccination programs have dramatically decreased the incidence of these dangerous diseases legislation the British government has also passed various laws aimed at reducing health risks from environmental and other factors notable examples include the Clean Air acts of 1956 and 1968 which were introduced to tackle the smog and air pollution that were common in British cities the health Act of 2006 which includes measures like Banning smoking in public places as furthered efforts to protect Public Health in recent years additional legislation has been introduced to strengthen these efforts one significant Amendment to the the health Act of 2006 is the law making private Vehicles smoke free when carrying children under the age of 18 which came into effect in October 2015 this amendment aims to protect young passengers from the harmful effects of secondhand smoke reflecting a growing recognition of the importance of safeguarding Children's Health government lifestyle campaigns to combat lifestyle related health issues the government has initiated several Public Health campaigns for example the change for life campaign launched in 2009 encouraged families to eat well move more and live longer by providing information and tools to help make healthier lifestyle choices such campaigns aim to raise awareness about the health risks associated with unhealthy eating lack of exercise and other harmful habits like smoking and excessive alcohol consumption in recent years additional initiatives have been launched to further promote physical and mental well-being The Better Health campaign launched in 2021 offers a wide range of resources to help individuals improve their health including guidance on weight loss healthy eating and increasing physical activity another significant campaign every mind matters focuses on Mental Health providing practical advice and personalized action plans to help people manage stress anxiety and other mental health challenges to support individuals in quitting smoking the NHS offers various resources including counseling nicotine replacement therapies and support groups the couch to 5K program is another popular initiative that encourages physical fitness by helping people gradually build up their running stamina over a period of 9 weeks ultimately enabling them to run a 5K distance these comprehensive efforts reflect the government's commitment to addressing both physical and mental health concerns through accessible and supportive Public Health campaigns in summary since 1942 the government has introduced vaccines for diseases like diptheria polio measles HPV and covid-19 reducing these diseases significantly the 1956 and 1968 clean air acts improved air quality by addressing Smog and pollution in cities the health Act of 2006 banned smoking in public places and later in private vehicles with children protecting against secondhand smoke the change for life campaign was launched in 2009 to promote healthier lifestyle choices through better eating and more activity recent campaigns such as Better Health and every mind matters support physical and mental health while couch to 5K and NHS resources help with Fitness and quitting smoking approaches to treatment in this video we are looking at the development of medicines including Magic Bullets and antibiotics the impact of Science and Technology on treatment and high-tech medical and surgical treatments in hospitals by the start of the 20th century scientists had identified the microbes responsible for causing many diseases with this knowledge researchers could focus their efforts on finding ways to fight these mic mes directly this shift in Focus led to the development of targeted medicines notably the concept of Magic Bullets and antibiotics which revolutionize the treatment of infectious diseases Magic Bullets a Magic Bullet refers to medicines designed to specifically Target and kill disease-causing microbes without harming the human body the first successful Magic Bullet was salvaron 606 discovered by PA ER in 1909 this drug was used to effectively treat syphilis marking a milestone in targeted therapy antibiotics antibiotics are drugs that kill bacteria or hinder their growth used widely to treat various bacterial infections unlike magic buits which are designed to Target specific microbes antibiotics can affect a broader range of bacteria the discovery of pronil in the 1930s by Gard do introduced the first commercially available antibiotic ponil works by preventing bacteria from multiplying thus controlling the spread of infections discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928 and developed further by scientists like Florian chain in the 1940s penicillin is considered the first true antibiotic because it is naturally derived from the penesyan mold is a broader antibacterial effect compared to Magic Bullets and has been crucial in treating various infections after the discovery of penicillin other antibiotics were developed over the next few decades including strep thyine which is used to treat tuberculosis tetracycline which is a broad spectrum antibiotic and arrine which is used for patients allergic to penicillin the ongoing problem of antibiotic resistance where bacteria evolve to resist existing drugs has made it crucial to continue developing new antibiotics researchers are constantly working to stay ahead of resistant bacteria by discovering and developing treatments since 1900 Science and Technology have dramatically transformed medical treatment in Britain leading to significant improvements in the quality of Health Care and patient outcomes this is evident in the following ways drug trials the development of rigorous drug trials has been crucial in ensuring that medications are safe and effective before they are widely used these trials involve multiple phases including tests on human volunteers to study the effects of new drugs and determine any side effects this process helps ensure that new treatments meet safety standards before they reach the public mass production of medicines advances in technology have allowed for the mass production of medicines making them more widely available and affordable to the public this was particularly important during Health crises such as the mass production of penicillin during the second world war which saved countless lives development of capsules the creation of drug capsules has made it easier for people to take their medicine capsules can efficiently deliver drugs to the body in a way that can be easily absorbed often improving the effectiveness of the treatment and making the drugs easier to swallow hypodermic needles The Invention and Improvement of hypmic needles have been vital for administering medications directly into the bloodstream offering a quick and efficient method of delivery especially for drugs that are not effective when taken orally this technology is essential for emergency treatments and vaccinations insulin pumps for people with diabetes insulin pumps have been a major advancement these devices continuously deliver insulin through a small tube that stays under the skin which helps maintain steady blood glucose levels this technology has significantly improve the quality of life for diabetics by providing a more consistent and manageable way of controlling their condition high-tech medical and surgical treatments offer more precise and less invasive options for treating a wide range of conditions Hightech Medical Treatments chemotherapy chemotherapy involves using chemical substances to treat cancer it can be administered through tablets injections or infusions and works by targeting and killing rapidly dividing cancer cells dialysis dialysis is a treatment that replicates the kidney functions for patients whose kidneys are no longer able to adequately filter waste product from the blood there are two main types hemodialysis and perianal dialysis both helping to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood gene therapy gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease this can involve replacing a faulty Gene with a healthy one inactivating a faulty gene or introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease radiotherapy radio therapy uses high energy radiation to Target and kill cancer cells it's a common treatment for various types of cancer and can be delivered externally or internally via implants near the cancer cells Hightech surgical treatments Keyhole or laproscopic surgery Keyhole surgery involves making small incisions and using long thin instruments to perform surgeries inside the body it is less invasive than traditional surgery leading to quicker recovery times and less scarring laser surgery laser surgery uses focus light to treat or remove tissues it is often used in eye operations such as correcting vision and can be used to treat other conditions like skin resurfacing and removing tumors robotic surgery robotic surgery allows surgeons to perform complex procedures with more Precision flexibility and control than is possible with conventional techniques the surgeon control controls robotic arms with surgical instruments attached often resulting in more precise and less invasive procedures transplant surgery modern transplant surgery involves replacing diseased or failing organs with healthy ones from a donor advances in transplant surgery include improved techniques in organ preservation better anti-rejection medications and the use of minimally invasive surgery to reduce recovery time extent of change since 1900 medical treatment in Britain has undergone tremendous changes reflecting advances in science technology and our understanding of human health in 1900 most people relied on herbal remedies for treating illnesses these remedies were passed down three generations and were the primary form of Health Care due to limited access to modern medicine about 25% of all death were due to infectious diseases treatments were limited and the understanding of disease spread and prevention was still developing Today medical treatment is both wide- ranging and highly precise thanks to technological advancements and deeper scientific knowledge treatments are now available for a vast array of conditions from chronic diseases like diabetes to various forms of cancer using everything from sophisticated drug therapies to Advanced surgical techniques there is also a significant focus on preventative medicine which includes vaccinations and regular Health screenings designed to catch diseases early before they become serious despite advancements we now face the challenge of emerging new diseases such as covid-19 which require rapid research and vaccine development in addition modern lifestyle choices including poor diet lack of exercise and smoking contribute to the rise of chronic diseases like obesity type 2 diabetes and heart disease which are now leading health concerns also the overuse and misuse of antibiotics has led to the rise of antibiotic resistant bacteria making it harder to treat infections that were once easily managed with standard antibiotic treatments in summary developed in the early 20th century Magic Bullets like salvaron 606 Target specific microbes without har the body revolutionizing disease treatment antibiotics such as pronil and penicillin discovered in the 1920s and 1930s treat a wide range of bacterial infections and have saved countless lives advances like drug trials mass production of medicines drug capsules hypothermic needles and Insulin pumps have transformed Medical Treatments making them safer and more effective modern treatments include chemotherapy dialysis gene therapy and radiotherapy offering more precise and less invasive options for various conditions Keyhole surgery laser surgery robotic surgery and transplant surgery have improved surgical outcomes reducing recovery times and increasing the success rate of complex procedures caring for the sick in this video we are looking at the creation of the NHS and improved access access to care the creation of the National Health Service in 1948 transformed British Healthcare vastly improving access to Medical Care Across the Nation pre 1948 before the NHS during the early 1900s most people were cared for at home primarily by women of the household and hospital care varied significantly by region the 1911 National Insurance act had proved provided health care for workers but excluded women and children highlighting the limited scope of health services available to some groups in society furthermore in 1919 the establishment of the Ministry of Health aimed to oversee and improveed Public Health and Medical Services setting the stage for a more organized system of healthcare the establishment of the NHS with the introduction of the NHS hospitals were nationalized and organized into Regional Health authorities which helped standardize care across the country Health Centers offering services like vaccinations maternity care and nursing were also created under the NHS these centers were crucial in improving Public Health providing a range of services that were previously inaccessible to many impact the impact of the NHS has been profound it is made Healthcare accessible to all regardless of income significantly reducing inequalities in Health Access since its creation the NHS has contributed to a rise in life expectancy and reductions in child and maternal mortality in Britain it has been at the Forefront of major medical breakthroughs including transplant surgery and Cancer Treatments and has placed a strong emphasis on preventative medicine with widespread vaccination programs and health campaign s such as those aimed at reducing smoking rates the NHS also relieved much of the burden on women who traditionally served as primary caregivers by providing extensive Health Care Services challenges however the NHS faces ongoing challenges the cost of providing comprehensive Healthcare has continually escalated putting pressure on NHS budgets this has led to the introduction of charges for certain service like prescriptions Dental treatments and eye tests with an increasing life expectancy the demand for NHS Services has grown especially from an aging population leading to longer waiting lists and sometimes restricted access to costly treatments and medications grade n knowledge the creation of the welfare state the labor government that came to power in Britain in 1945 passed a series of reforms that became known as the welfare state a system designed to ensure that everyone in the country had access to essential services and support this development was largely influenced by a report written in 1942 by Sir William beverage he identified five major social problems which he called the giant evils these were want disease ignorance squalor and idleness beverage suggested broad social reforms to tackle these issues one of the key ideas from beverage's report was to provide security for everyone from the Cradle to the Grave this meant making sure that people were supported from birth until death helping them deal with the uncertainties of Life a major part of this idea was the creation of the National Health Service in 1948 the NHS aimed to offer free health care to everyone in Britain no matter how much money they had this service was revolutionary because it meant that good health care was a right for all paid for through taxes the establishment of the NHS along with other welfare initiatives helped to ease the difficulties many faced especially during the tough postwar years by setting up the welfare state Britain took a significant step towards making a better life for its people showing a strong commitment to improving health and well-being through government support this system remains a key part part of British society today in summary the NHS was established in 1948 nationalizing hospitals and creating Regional Health authorities to standardize healthc care across the UK the NHS introduced Health Centers offering services like vaccinations maternity care and nursing which improved public health and made Services accessible to more people the NHS made Healthcare free for all reducing inequalities and improving life expectancy and child and maternal mortality rates through major medical advancements and preventative medicine the NHS reduced the burden on women as primary caregivers by providing extensive Health Care Services rising cost and increasing demand from an aging population of strange NHS budgets leading to charges for some services and longer waiting list for treatments bleming blurry and chains development of penicillin in this video we are looking at Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin and its development by Howard flurry and Ernest chain and how penicillin is used to treat diseases the discovery of penicillin Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin in 1928 is one of the most important medical breakthroughs of the 20th century bleming was a Scottish bacteriologist working at St Mary's Hospital in London he was experienced in studying bacteria and was particularly interested in finding ways to kill or stop their growth Fleming's discovery of penicillin was a fortunate accident in September 1928 after returning from a holiday bleming was sorting through Petri dishes containing staffle cus bacteria he noticed something unusual in one dish it had been contaminated with mold and around this mold the bacteria were dying the mold was later identified as penicilium notatum leming observed that it released a substance that could kill many common bacteria he called this substance penicillin after the mold that produced it Fleming's initial test showed that penicillin was capable of killing a wide range of harmful bacteria this was a groundbreaking discovery because at the time there were no effective treatments for many bacterial infections however although Fleming discovered penicillin he was able to purify and concentrated which limited its use grade n knowledge Alexander Fleming before Alexander Fleming made the groundbreaking discovery of penicillin he had an accomplished career in medical research his work initially focused on the fields of bacteriology and Immunology which were rapidly developing during that time during the first world war bleming served in the Royal Army Medical Corps and was involved in research at the battlefield hospitals in France his experiences during the war were crucial as he witnessed many soldiers dying from sepsis which is blood poisoning and infections that followed even minor wounds this exposure deeply influenced his subsequent research interests leming was particularly interested in finding effective antiseptics to treat wounds and prevent infections he noted that many antiseptics used at the time did more harm than good damaging white blood cells and the body's natural defenses against bacteria additionally Fleming worked with salvaron known as the first Magic Bullet drug developed by Paul erck to treat syphilis his experiences with salvaron and its limitations fueled his quest to find better antimicrobial agents setting the stage his accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928 the development of penicillin after Alexander Fleming's initial discovery of penicillin in 1928 the next significant chapter in the story of penicillin involves Howard florry and Ernest chain who were instrumental in transforming it from an interesting laboratory phenomenon into a life-saving drug both scientists were researchers at the University of Oxford florry was an Australian pathologist and chain was a biochemist born in Germany they became interested in Fleming's work on penicillin and saw its potential to fight bacterial infections in the late 1930s Flory chain and their colleague Norman Heatley developed techniques to purify penicillin making it possible to produce it in a form useful for Medical Treatments this was a complex task because penicillin is not stable difficult to extract in pure form in 1940 they conducted successful experiments on mice these experiments showed that penicillin could effectively cure bacterial infections in living organisms without harming the host after their success with mice they moved on to human trials the first human Trials of penicillin began in 1941 the initial results were extremely promising with Penicillin successfully treating a variety of infections that were previously considered fatal or very difficult to treat the very first human patient was a policeman who had developed a severe infection after being scratched by a rose Thorn despite his critical condition penicillin dramatically improved his symptoms and showcased the Drug's potential although he unfortunately could not complete his treatment due to insufficient supplies of penicillin at the time this initial trial highlighted both the effectiveness and the need for the mass production of penicillin with the outbreak of the second world war there was a huge demand for Effective treatments for wound infections among soldiers seeing the potential of penicillin to save lives the British and American governments funded large- scale production techniques were quickly developed to mass produce the drug making it widely available to Allied Forces by the time of D-Day there was enough penicillin available to treat all Allied casualties which significantly reduced the number of deaths and amputations caused by infected wounds during the war the use of penicillin penicillin is often called a miracle cure because it was the first drug to effectively treat serious bacterial infections saving millions of lives since its Discovery for their groundbreaking work Fleming florry and chain were awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1945 this award highlighted how important penicillin was as a medical breakthrough starting a new era in treating infections despite its success the use of penicillin has led to New Challenges es over time some bacteria have become resistant to it this means that these bacteria have adapted to survive even when treated with antibiotics leading to infections that are harder to cure antibiotic resistance is a major problem worldwide because it makes treating common infections more difficult and dangerous the issue of antibiotic resistance has prompted scientists to search for new ways to fight infections including developing new antibiotics and finding alternative treatments it also shows why it's important to use antibiotics responsibly such as only taking them when necessary and completing the full course prescribed by a doctor in summary in 1928 Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin when he noticed mold killing bacteria in a Petri dish naming the substance after the mold penicilium notatum Fleming found that penicillin could kill many harmful bacteria but he couldn't purify and concentrate it for medical youth in the late 1930s Howard flurry and Ernest chain along with Norman Heatley developed methods to purify penicillin conducting successful tests on mice and later humans proving its Effectiveness during the second World War the British and American governments funded large- scale production of penicillin which greatly reduced deaths and amputations from infected wounds among soldiers pen a miracle cure transformed the treatment of bacterial infections earning Fleming Flor and chain the Nobel Prize however antibiotic resistance has since become a significant issue requiring new treatments and responsible antibiotic use the fight against lung cancer in the 21st century in this video we are looking at why lung cancer became more widespread and why it is difficult to diagnose and treat the use of Science and Technology in diagnosis and treatment and how the government has tried to prevent Lung Cancer lung cancer has become one of the most common and deadly types of cancer in Britain in the 21st century several factors contribute to its widespread occurrence and the difficulties associated with diagnosing and treating it effectively challenges faced the primary cause of lung cancer is smoking despite Public Health campaigns and a significant reduction in smoking rates across Britain the long-term effects of smoking linger affecting individuals who may have quit years ago additionally exposure to environmental pollutants such as Asbestos and Urban Air Pollution has also contributed to the rise in lung cancer cases moreover as overall Healthcare has improved the population is aging which increases the prevailance of diseases like lung cancer that are more common in older individuals diagnosing lung cancer early is challenging because the disease often does not cause noticeable symptoms until it is quite Advanced symptoms like a persistent cough weight loss or chest pain are non-specific can easily be mistaken for other less serious conditions leading to delays in diagnosis by the time lung cancer is diagnosed it often has progressed to an advanced stage making it much harder to treat treat at these Advanced stages the cancer may have spread to other parts of the body complicating treatment options the treatment for lung cancer typically involves a combination of surgery chemotherapy and radiation therapy depending on the stage and spread of the disease however these treatments can have significant side effects and are not always effective particularly for more advanced cancer some types of lung cancer are also known to be resistant to chemotherapy further complicating treatment efforts due to these challenges lung cancer remains a major health issue in Britain the use of advanced Science and Technology plays a crucial role in both the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer these advancements not only improve the accuracy of lung cancer diagnosis but also enhance the effectiveness of the treatments offering hope to many patients and potentially improving survival rates diagnosis CT scans or computed tomography CT scans are a vital tool for diagnosing lung cancer they provide detailed cross-sectional images of the body allowing doctors to see inside the lungs without surgery these scans help in identifying tumors understanding their size and determining their precise location which is essential for accurate diagnosis and planning treatment bronchoscopy this procedure involves using a bronchoscope which is a thin flexible tube with a light and camera at the end it's inserted through the nose or mouth and down into the lungs bronchoscopy allows doctors to look directly inside the Airways of the lungs and collect small samples of tissue known as biopsy to check for cancer cells treatment transplants in severe cases of lung cancer where the disease has led to significant lung damage and other treatments are viable lung transplants may be considered this involves replacing the diseased lung with a healthy lung from a donor lung transplants are rare for lung cancer patients due to specific eligibility criteria and the risks involved radiotherapy radiotherapy uses high energy Rays similar to x-rays to Target and kill cancer cells it can be used as a primary treatment for lung cancer or after surgery to destroy any remaining cancer cells this treatment is very precise aiming to minimize damage to healthy tissues surrounding the tumor chemotherapy chemotherapy involves using anti-cancer drugs to kill cancer cells usually administered through an IV drip it can be used before surgery to shrink tumors making them easier to remove or after surgery to kill any remaining cancer cells chemotherapy can also help in controlling the disease and relieving symptoms when a The Cure is not possible in Britain the government has implemented several measures over the years to prevent Lung Cancer primarily by targeting smoking despite the economic implications of reduced tobacco sales which had previously slowed policy responses due to concerns about the impact on jobs in the tobacco industry and significant tax revenue prevention ban on cigarette advertising to reduce the appeal of smoking especially among young people the government banned all forms of cigarette advertising in 2005 this included advertisements on TV radio and in print media aiming to decrease the influences that promote smoking ban on smoking in workplaces in 2007 a significant law was passed to ban smoking in all enclosed workspaces and public areas across the UK this legislation was designed to reduce secondhand smoke exposure which can Al lead to lung cancer and to create healthier environments for everyone raising the legal age for buying tobacco that same year the legal age for purchasing tobacco products was raised from 16 to 18 this change aimed to make it more difficult for teenagers to start smoking thereby reducing the number of new smokers and ultimately lowering lung cancer rates increased taxation on tobacco products the government has progressively increased tax Ta on tobacco products to make smoking more expensive higher prices particularly impact younger people and low-income smokers are intended to deter smoking initiation and encourage quitting Public Health campaigns alongside these regulatory measures the government has continuously run Public Health campaigns to educate the public about the dangers of smoking these campaigns are widespread across VAR media platforms highlighting the health risks associated with smoking including lung cancer and providing support for those trying to quit in summary lung cancer in the 21st century is primarily caused by smoking with additional factors like pollution and an aging population contributing to its prevailance early diagnosis is difficult because symptoms often appear late and can be mistaken for other conditions leading to Advanced stages when detected treatments such as surgery chemotherapy and radiotherapy have significant side effects and are less effective in advanced stages some lung cancers are resistant to chemotherapy Technologies like CT scans bronchoscopy radiotherapy and chemotherapy are crucial for accurate diagnosis and effective treatment improving patient outcomes the government has implemented measures like Banning cigarette advertising raising the legal age for tobacco purchase increasing taxes on Tobacco and running Public Health campaigns to to reduce smoking rates and prevent Lung Cancer GCSE history topic five the British sector of the Western Front context of the British sector in this video we are looking at Key battles and features in the British sector of the Western Front the construction and organization of the trench system and the impact of the terrain on the provision of Medical Care at the outbreak of the first world war in August 1914 the British expeditionary force or the bef was deployed to support the French Army against the advancing German forces initially the British positions were concentrated around the Belgian city of mons and the French town of malb the bef faced intense fighting as they sought to prevent the Germans from reaching the English Channel Coastline despite their determined resistance the British and Allied Forces were gradually forced to retreat in the face of the overwhelming German Advance 1914 the first battle of e lasting from October to November 1914 the battle was a struggle between the allies and the German Army to control the town of Eep in Belgium e had strategic significance due to its location on the path to the channel ports despite sustaining heavy casualties the Allies managed to maintain their position and prevent a breakthrough by the Germans the British alone suffered approximately 58,000 casualties during this battle this defense of e was crucial in halting the German advance and securing Britain's Maritime supply lines 1915 the capture of Hill 60 Hill 60 near EP in Belgium was a strategic position that both sides sought to control the British tunneled beneath the hill and detonated massive explosives creating huge craters and causing significant damage to the German defenses the explosion was so powerful that it was heard as far away as London 1915 the Second Battle of ep the Second Battle of e bought in April and May 19155 was significant for being the first time that poison gath in this case chlorine was used on a large scale by the Germans this battle witnessed Fierce fighting around EP despite initial successes the Germans were unable to break through the Allied lines entirely the battle resulted in heavy casualties on both sides but ended with limited territorial gains for the Germans 1916 the battle of the s fought from July to November 1916 the battle of the S was one of the most significant battles of the first world war it aimed to relieve pressure on the French at verun and break through German lines on the Western Front on the first day alone British casualties reached a staggering 57,000 with around 20,000 soldiers losing their lives new tactics were employed including the creeping barrage where artillery fire moved slowly ahead of advancing infantry and the first use of tanks in Warfare despite initial gains the battle resulted in immense loss of life and minimal territorial advancements 1917 the battle of arath the battle of arath which took place from April to May 1917 was part of the larger British offensive on the Western Front it aimed to break through German defens around the French town of arath the battle saw the first major use of the British Army's new offensive tactic the creeping barrage which provided cover for advancing infantry despite initial gains the British offensive ultimately stalled with both sides suffering heavy losses about 158,000 British casualties the Battle of Aras saw the Innovative use of tunnels caves and quaries by British forces beneath the city of Aras in France a network of tunnels was dug out to provide shelter communication rots and storage spaces for troops and supplies these tunnels allowed soldiers to move safely and secretly underground avoiding enemy fire in addition to tunnels caves and quaries around arath were repurposed as underground Barracks hospitals and command posts these underground spaces provided protection from enemy bombardment and harsh weather conditions offering a sense of Safety and Security to troops 1917 the third battle of e also known as the battle of passendale the third battle of Eep was fought from July to November 1917 it aimed to capture The Ridges south and east of the Belgian town of E the Battle was character ized by atrocious weather conditions which turned the battlefield into a muddy Quagmire making movement difficult and casualties High despite these challenges the Allies managed to make some progress albeit at a significant cost in terms of lives loss it is estimated there were 245,000 British casualties 1917 the Battle of Cambra the Battle of Cambra fought in November and December 1917 marked the first large scale use of tanks in a coordinated offensive the British launched a surprise attack on German positions near the town of Cambra in France the initial Advance was Swift and successful with the British forces gaining several miles of territory and capturing thousands of German soldiers however the Germans quickly regrouped and launched counterattacks pushing the British back to their starting positions the trench system the Western Front stretched from the North Sea to the Swiss border early in the war the initial mobile phase quickly stalled leading to a deadlock armies on both sides dug trenches as a defensive measure against increasingly lethal Firepower such as machine guns and artillery which made traditional open Warfare devastatingly risky the first trenches were hastily dug by soldiers to provide immediate protection from enemy fire over time these evolved into elaborate networks of defensive structures trenches were typically about 2 and 1/2 M deep and 2 m wide to provide sufficient cover they were often zigzagged to prevent Side Fire from sweeping down the trench line revetment made from wood corrugated iron or sandbags were used to stabilize the trench walls trench layouts increasingly considered drainage as water accumulation was a serious problem leading to diseases the trench Network trench systems were not just single excavations but networks comprising multiple lines of trenches the front line trenches these were the closest to the enemy and were the first line of defense typically they were around 50 m from the enemy trenches though this could vary greatly along the western front the port trenches located a few 100 m behind the Frontline trenches these were used to reinforce the front line and as a staging area for counterattacks the reserve trenches further back these trenches were used to house troops not immediately needed at the front and to provide a last line of defense in case of a breakthrough by the enemy the distance between these trench lines could vary from 200 to 500 M communication trenches these connected the other trenches helping the movement of troops supplies and information features of trenches trenches were built with several key features to enhance their effectiveness the parapet this was the front wall of the trench facing the enemy often reinforced with sags to absorb enemy bullets and shell fragments the parados this was the rear wall of the trench was also built up to protect against attacks from the backat and from shrapnel duck boards wooden boards placed on the bottom of the trenches protected soldiers from standing in water and mud helping prevent conditions like trench foot th outs these were shelters dug into the sides of trenches where soldiers could rest or take cover during bombardments the fire step this was a ledge built into the lower part of the trench wall where soldiers could stand to fire over the paret at the enemy the terrain on the Western Front significantly affected medical treatment transportation and communication complicating the logistics of care and supplies medical treatment the Western Front was characterized by a devastated landscape churned up by continuous artillery shelling and heavy traffic of troops and Equipment this resulted in muddy often impassible conditions that severely hindered the movement of the wounded and the delivery of medical supplies the destruction of the landscape meant that moving injured soldiers from the front lines to dressing stations and field hospitals was fraught with difficulty stretcher bearers had to navigate through mud and shell holes often under enemy fire which delayed critical initial treatment and could worsen the injuries in addition the land primarily Farmland before the war was rich in manure and fertilizers when shells exploded they not only destroyed the terrain but also dispersed these materials contaminating wounds with bacteria that led to severe infections and gang greine the muddy conditions further compounded the risk of infection transport the heavy mud rendered many Motor Vehicles ineffective as they would often get stuck or become inoperable in the Deep thick mud this was especially problematic for ambulances that were urgently needed to transport the severely wounded to medical facilities artillery fire and heavy traffic also ruined existing roads making them nearly impossible to navigate repairing these roads was a constant challenge due to the ongoing battle conditions and further artillery strikes due to the unsuitability of roads for vehicles armies often resorted to horsedrawn ambulances which could sometimes manage better in mud but were slower and vulnerable to shelling trains and barges along more secure rear areas became crucial for longer distance transport of troops and wounded men though these modes also had limitations based on proximity to the front and the state of the rail and Canal networks communication communication was vital for coordinating attacks Retreats and medical evacuations but the train heavily disrupted these efforts the St method of communication at the time involved Telephone and Telegraph wires which were frequently cut by shell fire or displaced by the shifting mud repair Crews risked their lives going out to restore lines during or after attacks with wire Communications often unreliable armies had to rely on more primitive methods such as Runners who carried messages by hand and visual signals both methods were perilous and unreliable particularly in poor weather conditions and during heavy shelling in summary the British sector of the Western Front saw significant battles including the Eep Salient the Som Aras and Cur these battles were crucial in attempting to Halt German advancers and secure strategic positions the British used mines at Hill 60 near e and extensive tunnel networks at Aras to gain tactical advantages these Innovations included explosive mining underground Barracks hospitals and command posts to protect troops and facilitate secret movement the Western Front trench system included front line support and Reserve trenches interconnected by communication trenches features such as parapets duckboards dugouts and barbed wire enhanced defense and living conditions the muddy and shell damaged terrain complicated medical treatment transp report and communication wounded soldiers faced delays in evacuation and vehicles struggled in deep mud leading to Alliance on slower horse drawn ambulances and rail transport artillery fire and harsh conditions frequently disrupted Telegraph and telephone lines forcing armies to use Runners and visual signals for communication which were often unreliable and danger wounds injuries and illnesses in this video we are looking at conditions arising from the trench environment and how they were dealt with the nature of wounds and problems in treating them and the effects of gas attacks the trench environment in the first world war was Notorious for the harsh living conditions it imposed on soldiers and these conditions were directly responsible for a range of illnesses poor sanitation trenches were often dug quickly and with little planning for proper sanitation this led to several major issues waste disposal with limited facilities for Way Disposal human excrement and rubbish accumulated within or near the trenches this not only produced a foul smell but also became a breeding ground for flies and bacteria spreading disease dead bodies the proximity of trenches to the battlefield meant that dead bodies could sometimes lie decomposing for days before they could be safely removed this Decay contributed to the spread of disease and attracted Vermin lice and rats lice were a persistent problem and rats thrived in the unsanitary conditions of the trenches spreading diseases and contributing further to the unsanitary conditions weather conditions the weather played a significant role in worsening the already dire conditions in the trenches frostbite in winter temperatures often dropped below freezing leading to frostbite soldiers suffered from frostbite particularly in their extremities like fingers toes and ears where blood circulation was less effective flooded many trenches particularly those in low-lying areas were prone to flooding this not only made life miserable for the soldiers but also led to trench foot mud persistent wet conditions mixed with the churned up soil created thick mud which could trap soldiers and make it difficult to move this mud not only made daily activities exhausting but also increased the risk of accidents and injuries the trench environment led to several medical conditions that were common among soldiers these included trench fever trench foot and shell shock trench fever cause bacteria transmitted by Body Li which were rampant in the unhygienic conditions of the trenches symptoms severe pain high fever headache and dizziness which could last for several days management combating trench fever primarily involved improving hygiene within the trenches delousing stations were set up where soldiers could have their clothes and bedding cleaned boiling water and steam were used to kill lice on clothing and personal items trench foot cause prolonged exposure of the feet to cold wet and unsanitary conditions symptoms swelling numbness and a change in skin color to red or blue if untreated trench foot could lead to gang greine and necessitate amputation management prevention was the main strategy against trench foot soldiers were encouraged to keep their feet clean and dry change their socks regularly and apply whale oil grease to protect their feet drying stations and better drainage of trenches were also implemented to help keep the feet of soldiers dry education about Foot Care was provided and those affected were evacuated from the front lines for treatment which included drying and slowly warming the affected feet shell shock cause a psychological condition resulting from the intense stress and Trauma of warfare symptoms included panic attacks inability to reason sleep disturbances and severe anxiety management during the first world war the understanding of psychological Health was limited and shell shock was often poorly treated initially sufferers might be considered cowardly or lazy however as the war progressed medical officers began to recognize shell shock as a legitimate illness treatment varied ranging from rest and recuperation away from the front lines to more severe methods like electric shock treatment during the first World War soldiers face severe risks from various types of weapons particularly rifles and explosives which caused the majority of Battlefield injuries wounds from rifles and machine guns nature of wounds bullets from rifles and machine guns accounted for approximately 39% of wounds these high velocity projectiles cause significant damage when they hit creating clean penetrating wounds that could damage tissues bones and organs problems the primary risk with bullet wounds was the deep penetration which could introduce bacteria deep into tissues leading to Serious infections moreover if the bullet hit bone it could lead to compound fractures with shards of bone acting as secondary projectiles within the body wounds from shells and explosives nature of wounds shells and other explosives were responsible for about 58% of Battlefield wounds characterized by the presence of shrapnel when shells exploded they scattered fragments of metal at high speeds capable of causing multiple injuries simultaneously to anyone within range problems of shrapnel shrapnel wounds were often Jagged and irregular causing extensive tissue damage these fragments could be large or small and smaller pieces could remain undetected in the body leading to complications The Irregular nature of these wounds made them particularly prone to infection as debris clothing and even pieces of the soldier's uniform could be driven into the wound problems of wound infection the risk of wound infection was high worsened by several factors embedded clothing shrapnel tearing through uniforms could embed pieces of dirty fabric into wounds introducing bacteria soil contamination many battlefields were previously Farmland where fertilizers had been used extensively this soil could contain disease causing microbes like those causing gas Gang Green a deadly and fast spreading form of gang greine arising from bacteria in in low oxygen environments increase in head injuries the nature of trench warfare where soldiers peered over the tops of trenches increased the risk of head injuries initially soldiers wore soft caps that offered no protection against head wounds recognizing the need for better protection the British army introduced the steel bro helmet in 195 it was effective in lowering the number of fatal head wounds by about 80% a significant Improvement that saved countless lives gas attacks gas attacks introduced a new and terrifying weapon that caused not only physical injuries but also significant fear and panic among soldiers approximately 6,000 British soldiers died as a result of gas attacks chlorine gas chlorine gas was first used on a large scale at the Second Battle of Eep in April 1915 by the German Army it marked the beginning of chemical warfare on the Western Front chlorine gas which appears as a greenish yellow Cloud reacts with water in the lungs to form hydrochloric acid essentially burning the lungs and leading to respiratory distress symptoms include coughing choking and blinding pain and severe cases could result in Death from asphixiation bos Gene gas BOS genene was first used by Germany in late 1915 it was more dangerous than chlorine because it was colorless and had a delayed effect making it harder to detect and increasing the number of casualties fostin caused much more severe lung damage than chlorine the symptoms were often delayed taking 24 hours or more to show initially victims might experience a feeling of Suffocation and chest tightness followed by severe coughing vomiting and potentially fatal pulmonary edema which is fluid in the lungs mustard gas mustard gas was first used by the Germans near eat in 1917 mustard gas causes painful blisters on the skin and mucous membranes and it could take hours to days for symptoms to appear worsening the damage if inhaled it damaged the respiratory tract and could lead to Chronic respiratory disease or death exposure to the eyes could cause temporary or permanent less PR ention soldiers initially resorted to primitive and often ineffective methods of protection against gas attacks one such method was the use of cotton pads soaked in urine which was held over the face in an attempt to filter out the toxic chemicals the ammonia and urine was believed to react with the chlorine to neutralize it somewhat although this method provided limited protection recognizing the urgent need for more effective protective measures the British Army introduced gas masks in 19155 the early gas masks were simple and not highly effective but they gradually improved over the course of the war these masks equipped with charcoal filters offered soldiers better protection against the effects of chlorine fine and mustard gas the development and distribution of gas masks reduced the number of casualties from gas attacks and alleviated some of the fear and panic associated with them however the threat of gas Warfare remained a significant concern throughout the war in summary poor sanitation in the trenches including waste and decomposing bodies along with lice and rats led to widespread disease the weather worsened the harsh living conditions with flooding causing trench foot freezing temperatures leading to frostbite and muddy conditions increasing the risk of accidents and injuries trench fever trench foot and shell shock were common in illnesses with treatments focusing on hygiene foot care and psychological support injuries from rifles and machine guns resulted in deep penetrating wounds while shells and shrapnel caused Jagged injuries that were highly prone to infection gas attacks using chlorine fine and mustard gas cause severe respiratory damage initially soldiers used ineffective methods for protection but eventually gas masks were developed to to better counter these deadly attacks caring for the wounded in this video we are looking at the work of the ramc and the fanny the stages of treatment areas including the underground hospital ataras and the system of Transport for the wounded Medical Services were crucial in caring for the wounded and managing the health challenges that arose from the harsh conditions of trench warfare two significant organizations that play pivotal roles with the Royal Army Medical Corp or the ramc and the first aid nursing yry known as Fanny the Royal Army Medical Corp the ramc was established in 1898 it was responsible for the medical care of soldiers in the British army duties included everything from first aid in the trenches to running field ambulances and large stationary hospitals by 1918 the ramc had expanded dramatically encompassing thousands of medical officers with additional support from tens of thousands of non-commissioned officers and enlisted men who served as orderly stretcher bearers and ambulance drivers the primary role of the ramc was to treat and evacuate wounded soldiers from the front lines they set up field dressing stations a short distance from The Trenches where immediate medical attention could be administered Ed more severe cases were then transported to casualty clearing stations and further to base hospitals if needed the ramc was also involved in pioneering new medical techniques including antiseptic wound treatment and surgical advancements first aid nursing yry the fny was founded in 1907 as a volunteer organization initially formed to provide support to yry regiments their role quickly shifted with the outbreak of the first world war when they were brought in to assist the RC the F served primarily as ambulance drivers and nurses while smaller in number compared to the RMC the fny had over 400 volunteers by the end of the war these women were among the first to drive motor ambulances to retrieve the injured and bring them to field hospitals often under dangerous conditions close to the front lines the Fan's contributions were groundbreaking especially considering the social norms of the time regarding the roles of women in Wartime they not only transported wounded soldiers but also helped in setting up field hospitals administering first aid and even managing Communications and logistical tasks grade nine knowledge the voluntary Aid detachment the voluntary Aid Detachment or vad played a crucial role in providing medical assistance and support to the military the vad was primarily comprised of volunteers mostly women who signed up to help with the war effort these volunteers were not fully qualified nurses but received training in basic nursing and first aid to prepare them for their roles ad members served both at home and abroad working in hospitals field ambulances and Casualty clearing stations their tasks included nursing the wounded transporting the injured and managing hospital supplies they also helped with administrative duties and provided emotional support to the soldiers by writing letters and offering companionship the work of the voluntary a Detachment was vital in supporting the overstretched medical services they filled critical gaps in healthcare during the war ensuring that soldiers received the care and attention they needed the dedication and bravery of volunteers not only contributed significantly to the war effort but also marked a turning point in the recognition of women's roles in voluntary Medical Care the chain of evacuation for the wounded was a well organized operation crucial for saving the lives of injured soldiers this system was designed to move casualties from the front lines to medical treatment facilities as quickly and safely as possible the chain of evacuation involved several key stages regimental Aid posts or rap located just behind the front lines in communication trenches or deserted buildings the RP was the First Medical station where basic first aid was administered here doctors and medical staff assessed the severity of the wounds and provided emergency treatment to stabilize the soldiers dressing station located a bit further from the front line than the RP the dressing station was where more thorough assessments and Immediate Care were provided they were located in abandoned buildings or bunkers to offer protection here wounds were cleaned dressed and temporary treatments applied to prepare the wounded for transfer to a casualty clearing station these stations had more medical supplies and staff 10 medical officers orderly stretcher bearers and from 1915 nurses and the aid posts allowing for better initial treatment and a more detailed evaluation of each soldier's needs field ambulance not an actual ambulance but a Mobile Medical unit comprising personnel and Equipment which included tents or makeshift facilities where the first crucial treatments were administered they played a key role in assessing and preparing the wounded for transport to more comprehensive facilities casualty clearing stations or CCS position IED a few miles behind the front lines casualty clearing stations operated in buildings like schools or warehouses and provided vital Medical Care they were strategically placed to be close enough to quickly receive injured soldiers but far enough to avoid direct enemy fire a CCS was like a small Hospital equipped with operating theaters Wards and sometimes even x-ray machines it served as a critical link between the immediate care at the front and the extensive Treatment available at larger base hospitals triage was a system used to quickly assess and categorize injured soldiers to manage the large numbers effectively it worked in three stages firstly the walking wounded these Were Soldiers with minor injuries who could walk on their own they were treated quickly possibly given a bit of rest and then either sent back to Duty or to a place where they could recover fully secondly those needing hospital treatment these Were Soldiers with serious injuries that needed more detailed medical treatment after initial care to stabilize them these soldiers were usually sent to a larger hospital for further treatment and thirdly those with no chance of recovery these were soldiers whose injuries were so extreme that survival was unlikely they received care to make them as comfortable as possible during their final moments focusing on easing their pain and suffering the CCS was staffed by doctors nurses and medical personnel from the ramc and volunteer groups these teams performed complex surgeries and provided Critical Care greatly improving the chances of survival for many soldiers base hospitals base hospitals were located even further from the front often in nearby towns or cities away from the main battle areas these facilities were well equipped resembling civilian hospitals and capable of providing comprehensive Medical Care here the wounded received specialized treatments underwent recovery and Rehabilitation the medical staff at Bay's hospitals could perform complex surgeries treat infections more effectively and manage long-term recuperation with facil ities like x-ray machines operating theaters and specialist Wards the underground hospital at Aras the underground hospital at Aras also known as Thompson's cave was developed within a network of tunnels these tunnels connected various cellers and underground passages beneath Aras which had been used for centuries before being repurposed during the war despite being underground the hospital was equipped with some of the most advanced infrastructure available at the time it had electric lighting and piped water which were crucial for operating a medical facility under such conditions the electricity allowed medical staff to perform surgeries and provide care at all hours while piped water was vital for hygiene and the treatment of wounded soldiers the underground Hospital hosal was primarily used for treating soldiers who were injured at the front lines near Aras it location underground provided protection from artillery fire making it a safer place for both medical staff and patients the hospital played a crucial role during the Battle of harass in 1917 helping to stabilize and treat thousands of soldiers before they were either sent back to fight or move to larger more equipped hospitals further from the front transport ation between the stages of the chain of evacuation was critical and was facilitated by stretcher bearers horsedrawn ambulances motor vehicles and trains specially equipped for carrying the wounded each mode of Transport was chosen based on the terrain and the urgency of the medical need stretcher bearers stretcher bearers were typically soldiers often part of the RC whose Duty was to retrieve the wounded from the battle field these individuals played a critical role as the First Responders Under Fire after a soldier was wounded stretche bearers would carry them From The Trenches or Battlefield to the regimental Aid posts this was often a dangerous task it had to be done under the ongoing threat of enemy fire and artillery horse ambulances before the widespread availability of Motor Vehicles all stwn ambulances were commonly used these vehicles were essential for transporting wounded soldiers over rough terrain or areas where Motor Vehicles could not easily go while horsedrawn ambulances were less affected by the muddy and uneven ground conditions of the front they were slower and could be distressed by the noise and Chaos of battle which sometimes limited their effectiveness motor ambulances as the war progressed motor ambulances became more prevalent these vehicles were faster and more reliable over longer distances allowing for quicker evacuation to hospitals motor ambulances transported the wounded from RPS to casualty clearing stations which were well equipped facilities located further from the front lines Railways and waterways from the CCS severely wounded soldiers might be transported by Hospital trains or barges to larger base hospitals located in safer areas often close to the coast or in neighboring countries these hospitals provided the extensive Care and Rehabilitation needed for Recovery in summary the ramc provided comprehensive Medical Care from front lines to base hospitals pioneering antiseptic treatments and surgical advancements The Fanny served as ambulance drivers and nurses during the first world war breaking social norms by having women work close to the front lines stages of treatment included regimental Aid posts for first aid dressing stations for further assessment casualty clearing stations for surgeries and base hospitals for extensive care the transport system included stretcher bearers hor drawn ambulances motor vehicles and Hospital trains to move wounded soldiers between treatment stages the underground Hospital laras also known as Thompson's cave was a well equipped underground facility that provided safe medical treatment during the Battle of Aras in 1917 context of medicine in the early 20th century in this video we are looking at developments in medicine in the early 20th century in the early 20th century Britain saw significant advancements in the field of medicine particularly in areas such as aseptic surgery x-rays and blood transfusions these developments would be further built on during the first world war aseptic surgery aseptic surgery involves techniques to maintain sterile conditions and prevent infections during operations this approach Builds on the principles of antiseptic surgery developed by Joseph Lista in the late 19th century which used chemicals to kill germs aseptic Tech techniques however focus on creating a germfree environment through the sterilization of instruments surgical gloves and clean operating environments aseptic surgery significantly reduced the risk of infections which were a common cause of death in postoperative patients by preventing germs from entering wounds it greatly increased the safety and success rate of surgical procedures x-rays discovered by willhelm wonen in 1895 X-rays were quickly adopted in medical Diagnostics they allowed doctors to view the internal structures of the body without invasive surgery providing critical information for diagnosis and treatment planning x-rays revolutionized the ways doctors diagnosed and treated internal injuries and conditions such as bone fractures and chest diseases they became an IND sensible tool in hospitals possessing patients more accurately and quickly the early use of x-rays POS significant health risks as the dangers of prolonged exposure to radiation were not yet fully understood many medical professionals suffered from conditions like radiation burns hair loss and more serious radiation induced diseases blood transfusions the practice of blood trans Fusion Advanced significantly during the early 20th century especially with the discovery of blood groups by Carl liner in 1901 this discovery made transfusion safer as it allowed for compatibility testing between donors and recipients reducing the risk of adverse reactions blood transfusions became a life-saving procedure they helped in managing blood loss during surgery and treating patients suffering from severe anemia or hemorrhoid despite the discovery of blood groups the lack of effective methods to store blood limited the practicality of transfusions blood had to be used immediately after donation which restricted its availability and utility in summary aseptic surgery introduced methods to keep surgical areas clean and germ free preventing infections and reducing deaths after surgery X-rays were discovered in 1894 five and allowed doctors to see inside the body without surgery greatly improving the diagnosis and treatment of injuries like broken bones early use of x-rays had health risks because doctors did not know about the dangers of radiation exposure blood transfusions improved in 1901 with the discovery of blood groups making it safer by ensuring blood compatibility between donors and patients blood transfusions were essential for treating blood loss and severe anemia but were limited because the blood had to be used immediately after donation new techniques in treatment and surgery in this video we are looking at new techniques in the treatment of wounds and infection the use of the Thomas splint Mobile X-Ray units and blood transfusions and developments in surgery treatment of wounds and infection treating wounds and infections presented major challenges on the Western Front large numbers of casualties combined with the muddy unhygienic environment of the trenches made it extremely difficult to maintain aseptic conditions leading to high rates of infection among wounded soldiers in response to these challenges several new techniques were developed or refined during the war to improve the treatment of wounds and reduce infection rates wound debridment this involves the surgical removal of dead damaged or infected tissue to improve the healing potential of the remaining healthy tissue debridment was crucial in preventing the spread of infections including gas gang greine by removing the dead tissue doctors reduced the material that harbored bacteria and created a cleaner healthier environment for healing amputation in cases where debridment was not sufficient to control an infection or if the damage to limbs was too extensive amputation was performed to save the patient's life amputation removed sources of severe infection that could lead to death if allowed to spread throughout the body it was a drastic but often life-saving procedure the C dayin method developed by Dr Alexis Carell and the chemist Henry dayin this method involved the intermittent irrigation of wounds with dayin solution a diluted bleach solution effective for killing bacteria this method was revolutionary in treating infected wounds the antiseptic solution helped to clean the wound and prevent the growth of bacteria significantly reducing infection rates and improving the outcomes of wound treatments the Thomas splint the Thomas splint played a crucial role in improving the treatment of severe leg injuries among British soldiers before its widespread adoption Soldiers with compound fractures had a very high mortality rate due to the complications associated with these injuries a compound fracture also known as an open fracture is a type of bone fracture where the bone breaks through the skin creating an open wound this is particularly dangerous because it not only involves severe damage the bone but also poses a high risk of infection due to the exposure of the wound to the unhygienic conditions often found in Battlefield environments in 1914 and 15 Soldiers with compound fractures had a survival rate of only about 20% the high mortality rate was mainly due to infections like gas gang greine and the difficulty in effectively immobilizing the broken bones which was essential for proper healing the Thomas splint was developed by Hugh Owen Thomas a Welsh surgeon who was a Pioneer in orthopedic surgery his nephew Robert Jones who was a prominent orthopedic surgeon and served in the military adapted it for use during the war the splint itself is a simple metal frame designed to immobilize a broken leg by keeping it in a fixed position it extends from the thigh to beyond the foot with Str STS and padding to secure and cushion the injured limb when the Thomas spint was introduced to the Western Front and used extensively it dramatically improved the outcomes for soldiers with compound fractures the proper immobilization it provided significantly reduced the movement of broken bones minimized further damage and lowered the risk of infection as a result the survival rate for soldiers with these injuries increased to 80 2% Mobile X-Ray units Mobile X-Ray units were primarily used to locate shrapnel bullets and other foreign objects in the bodies of injured soldiers before their introduction surgeons had to operate based on guesswork or probing wounds which was much less effective and more painful for the patient with the development of x-ray technology doctors could see exactly where where the objects were leading to more precise and faster surgeries greatly increasing the chances of recovery however the use of Mobile X-Ray units came with significant challenges these included it was a timec consuming process patients had to remain completely still for several minutes to get a clear x-ray image this was difficult especially for those in severe pain or with serious injuries overheating of equipment the X-ray machines often overheated due to continuous use particularly during major battles when the number of casualties soared to combat this Medics typically had to rotate among three different machines to allow them time to cool down ensuring the availability of the equipment when needed Logistics and Mobility transporting and setting up these x-ray units near the front lines was a logistical challenge the needed to be mobile enough to be moved quickly to various field hospitals this Mobility was vital to provide Immediate Care to the wounded soldiers blood transfusions in 1915 Dr Jeffrey Keen a British surgeon designed a portable blood transfusion kit this kit enabled Medics to perform transfusions at or near the front lines providing Immediate Care to the wounded this port kit was a significant advancement because it allowed for quick and efficient treatment of blood loss one of the primary causes of death on the battlefield simultaneously a crucial scientific discovery by Richard lewison in 1915 made blood transfusions more practical and widespread lewison found that adding sodium citrate to blood prevented it from clotting eliminating the immediate need for a direct do to recipient transfusion this discovery meant that blood could be collected treated and then stored briefly until needed a revolutionary change in Medical Treatments the next major advancement came in 1916 when Francis Rue and James Turner introduced the addition of a citate glucose solution to the stored blood this mixture allowed blood to be stored for up to 4 weeks without spoiling significant ly extending its usability and making it more practical for medical use in war zones Lawrence Bruce Robertson a Canadian doctor working at the British base Hospital in booin was instrumental in advancing the Practical use of blood transfusions in military Medicine by 1917 largely due to Robertson's efforts blood transfusions were being routinely administered in casualty clearing stations to treat shock his work helped establish transfusions as a standard response to the kind of traumatic injuries seen in combat one of the most significant milestones in the use of blood transfusions during the first world war was the creation of a blood bank by oswal hope Robertson for the Battle of Cambra in 1917 Robertson's use of stored blood at this battle marked the first time blood collected in advance was used to treat casualties suffering from shock it's not not only improved survival rates dramatically but also set a new standard in medical treatment during Warfare the establishment of these practices marked a turning point in medical treatment during war blood transfusions became a fundamental part of Emergency Medical Care significantly increasing the chances of survival for soldiers who might otherwise have succumbed to shock or blood loss developments in surgery significant advancements in the field of surgery including brain surgery and plastic surgery were made during the first world war brain surgery brain surgery in the first world war was necessitated by the high incidents of head and neck wounds which accounted for about 20% of all Battlefield injuries these injuries posed several challenges they were prone to infection difficult to transport without EX exacerbating the condition and there was a scarcity of doctors skilled in neurosurgery one of the key figures in this field was Harvey Cushing an American surgeon who worked closely with British Medical Teams Cushing introduced several Innovative techniques that significantly improved the outcomes of brain surgeries he used magnets to carefully remove metal fragments from the brain which was a common issue due to shrapnel wounds recognizing the risks associated with general anesthesia which could cause the brain to swell and complicate the surgery Cushing pioneered the use of local anesthesia Instead This approach not only reduced the risk of swelling but also allow for more precise and safer operations plastic surgery plastic surgery saw equally groundbreaking developments largely through the work of Sir Harold Gillies Gillies is considered the father of modern plastic surgery and focused particularly on facial reconstruction his work became especially important because of the nature of trench warfare where many injuries involved the face and head Gilly's main base was the Queen's Hospital in sidcup Kent which became a dedicated Center for facial reconstruction here in just over a year more than 12,000 operations were carried out this work was crucial not only for the physical repair but also for the psychological recovery of the soldiers many of whom suffered devastating facial injuries that affected their ability to eat speak and return to civilian life the techniques developed by Gillies included not just a surgical repair of wounds but also early forms of what would now be recognized as cosmetic surgery he developed methods to use skin grafts from other parts of the body to reconstruct faces damaged by shrapnel and bullets his pioneering work laid the foundations for modern reconstructive an Aesthetic Surgical techniques grade n knowledge the tubed pedicle among the many Innovations of howold Gillies the tued pedicle stands out as a revolutionary technique the sted pedicle was a method developed by Gillies to use the patient own tissue for reconstructive surgery particularly in cases involving severe facial injuries the technique involved creating a tube of skin from an unaffected area of the patient's body often the chest or abdomen this tube still attached at one end to its original sight maintained its own blood supply which was crucial for the survival of the tissue the other end of the tube would gradually be moved and attached to the area needing reconstruction such as the face over time this allowed the transplanted tissue to integrate with the surrounding area providing natural looking and durable results the tubed pedicle was used extensively to reconstruct faces disfigured by war injuries helping to restore functionality and appearance this method not only significantly improved the quality of life for many soldiers but also laid foundational practices for modern reconstructive surgery in summary The mdy unhygienic Trenches on the Western Front caused High infection rates among wounded soldiers surgical removal of dead tissue known as debridment helped create a healthier environment for wound healing while amputation was performed when debridment was insufficient to control infections the cow ding method involved the intermittent irrigation of wounds with a diluted bleach solution which was effective at killing bacteria and significantly reducing infection rates the Thomas splint improved survival rates for soldiers with compound fractures by immobilizing broken legs and reducing infections Mobile X-Ray units and blood transfusions increased survival rates by accurately locating shrapnel and efficiently treating blood loss advances in brain and plastic surgery by Pioneers like Harvey Cushing and Sir Harold Gillies improved outcomes for soldiers with head and facial injuries sources in this video we are looking at relevant national and local sources for inquiries into medicine on the Western Front the strengths and weaknesses of different types of sources in the historic environment section of your exam you will need need to work with two different sources you'll be required to discuss and decide how useful each source is for understanding a specific aspect of the topic and pick out a particular detail in one of the sources to explore further each type of source has its own strengths and weaknesses knowing these can boost your confidence and help you effectively handle the sources during the exam it will also assist you in selecting the most relevant source for the follow-up question this lesson doesn't cover all possible sources you might see on your exam but it does include those mentioned in the specification this means these are the sources that the exam board expects you to be familiar with sources can be National relating to the whole of Britain during the first world war or local originating from the Western Front National sources relevant National sources include Army records National newspapers government records and medical articles the strengths of army records include that they provide data on the number and types of casualties and specific treatments given to soldiers however the weaknesses are that they lack details on the personal experiences of soldiers and the specific difficulties encountered in providing Medical Care on the Western Front the strength of national newspapers is that they can offer information about significant battles and the progress of the war as well as advancements in medicine on the Western Front however they would have been subject to government censorship which means the information may not fully reflect the true conditions or individual experiences of those on the Western Front the strengths of government records is that they provide detailed and accurate information about the progress of battles and an overview of the medical challenges faced on the Western Front however they're not going to include personal accounts medical articles have strengths because they detail the medical challenges encountered describe Innovations in the treatment of injuries and discuss the impact of these medical advancements however they will typically emit details about the personal experiences of medical evacuation and the progression of specific battles local sources relevant local sources include personal accounts photographs hospital records and army statistics the strength of personal accounts is that they offer insights into the personal experiences of individuals on the Western Front including soldiers stretch bearers and nurses providing a human perspective on Medical Care however each account is limited to just one person's experience which may not represent broader conditions or practices on the Western Front the strength of photographs is that they provide Visual Evidence of the conditions on the Western Front showcasing the challenges of the terrain the nature of wo and points along the chain of evacuation however each photograph captures only a single moment and location which may not accurately represent other settings or broader circumstances hospital records are beneficial as they contain detailed information about the challenges faced by individual hospitals and the medical treatment provided such as casualty numbers following major battles specific treatments administered and Recovery durations however like per personal accounts and photographs hospital records offer a snapshot limited to specific moments and locations potentially not reflective of other medical settings on the Western Front finally the strength of using Army statistics is that they provide quantitive data on medical issues relating to combat on the Western Front including casualty numbers the nature of injuries and the deployment of medical personnel like stretcher bearers however they lack detailed accounts of personal EXP experiences and do not cover the logistical and practical challenges of medical evacuation and treatment provision in diverse Battlefield conditions ouch this is why in some videos I explain scratches [Music]