AQA Psychology A-level: Psychopathology

Part 1: Definitions of Abnormality

• Statistical Infrequency

  • Disorders are abnormal if frequency > 2 SD from mean.
  • Used for clinical diagnoses (e.g., Schizophrenia).
  • Critique: Positive infrequency (e.g., high IQ) not negative.

• Failure to Function Adequately

  • Proposed by Rosenhan and Seligman (1989).
  • Abnormal if mental state disrupts normal life/social norms.
  • Strength: Considers patient's perspective.
  • Weakness: May lead to "strange/crazy" labels & discrimination.

• Deviation from Social Norms

  • Abnormal behavior deviates from cultural norms.
  • Critique: Varies between cultures (e.g., APD).
  • Problem: Cultural relativism causes diagnostic discrepancies.

• Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

  • Proposed by Jahoda (1958): Focus on ideal mental state.
  • Criteria: Self-actualization, accurate self-perception, etc.
  • Critique: Unrealistic expectations, cultural relativism.

Part 2: Characteristics of Phobias

• Behavioral Characteristics

  • Panic, avoidance, endurance.

• Emotional Characteristics

  • Anxiety, unawareness of irrational anxiety.

• Cognitive Characteristics

  • Selective attention, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions.

Part 3: Characteristics of Depression

• Behavioral Characteristics

  • Changes in activity levels, aggression, sleep/eating patterns.

• Emotional Characteristics

  • Low self-esteem, poor mood, high anger levels.

• Cognitive Characteristics

  • Absolutist thinking, selective attention to negatives, poor concentration.

Part 4: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Behavioral Characteristics

  • Compulsions, avoidance behavior.

• Emotional Characteristics

  • Guilt, disgust, depression, anxiety.

• Cognitive Characteristics

  • Acknowledgment of excessive anxiety, cognitive strategies, obsessive thoughts.

Part 5: Behavioral Approach to Explaining Phobias

• Two-Process Model by Mowrer
  • Acquisition via classical conditioning.
  • Maintenance via operant conditioning.
  • Critique: Alternative explanations like safety (Buck) and evolutionary predisposition (Seligman).

Part 6: Behavioral Approach to Treating Phobias

• Systematic Desensitization

  • Counterconditioning, anxiety hierarchy, relaxation techniques.
  • Supporting evidence: Gilroy et al.

• Flooding

  • Immediate exposure, cost-effective but less effective for complex phobias.

Part 7: Cognitive Approach to Explaining Depression

• Beck's Theory

  • Cognitive vulnerability, faulty processing, negative self-schemas, cognitive triad.
  • Supporting evidence: Grazioli & Terry.

• Ellis's ABC Model

  • Activating event, Belief, Consequence.
  • Critique: Limited to reactive depression.

Part 8: Cognitive Approach to Treating Depression

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
  • Identify & challenge irrational thoughts.
  • Elliss rational emotive behavior therapy focuses on challenging thoughts.
  • Supporting research: March et al.

Part 9: Biological Approach to Explaining OCD

• Genetic Explanation
  • Diathesis-stress model, polygenic nature.
  • Supporting evidence: Nestadt et al.
  • Critique: Too many genes, ignores environmental factors.

Part 10: Biological Approach to Treating OCD

• SSRIs and Tricyclics

  • Increase neurotransmitter concentration.
  • Critique: Side effects can impact daily life.

• Cost-effectiveness

  • Non-disruptive and economical treatment, preferable for public health.

These notes summarize the comprehensive examination of psychopathology in the AQA Psychology A-level, covering key theories, characteristics, approaches, and critiques of various mental health conditions.