Exam 1 Lecture Notes

Culture

• Defines as "a unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations."
• Influences behavior and identity.
• Awareness of Culture:
  • Individuals may be unaware of their cultural influence (e.g., America vs. the world).
• Aspects of Culture:
  • Individualism vs. Collectivism
  • Gender Roles
  • Clothing Norms (e.g., sweats vs. real clothes)
  • Anti-Semitism (subtle vs. direct)
  • Food Practices: Unlimited soda refills.
  • Reinforces social categories like race and gender.

Identity

• Considers race, gender, and social categories.
• White Identity:
  • Not having a marginalized racial identity.
  • Synonymous with being American.
• Historical Changes:
  • Hypodescent: Historical racial classification.
  • Religion & Heritage: Impacted views on racial identity.

Norms

• Definitions:
  • Rules of behavior within a group, can be formal or informal.
• Types:
  • Descriptive Norms: What people do.
  • Injunctive Norms: What people should do.
• Human Nature:
  • People are biased.
  • Interventions can backfire due to prevailing biases.

Identity & Group Membership

• "Who Am I?" involves personal and social identities.
  • Personal Identities: Birth order, values, hobbies.
  • Social Identities: Gender, race, religion.
• Marginalization and dominance in social identity.
• Intersectionality: Multiple marginalized identities.

Stereotypes

• Definition: Generalized beliefs about groups.
  • Positive or negative, both can have negative consequences.
• Stereotype Characteristics:
  • Pictures in an individual's head and shared cultural beliefs.
  • "Kernel of truth" in some stereotypes.
• Consequences:
  • Affect perceptions, judgments, and behaviors.

Prejudice and Discrimination

• Prejudice: Generalized attitude towards a group.
• Discrimination: Behaviors directed based on group membership.
• Bias Types: Implicit vs. Explicit.

Implicit vs. Explicit Bias

• Implicit Bias: Automatic, subconscious.
• Explicit Bias: Conscious, deliberate.

Implicit Associations Test (IAT)

• Measures reaction times, pairs stereotypes with groups.
• Controversy: Nature of implicit bias measurement.

Levels of SP&D (System of Bias)

• Interpersonal: Person-to-person level biases.
• Organizational: Discriminatory outcomes from practices and policies.
• Institutional: Norms and practices result in different outcomes.
• Cultural: Group defines cultural values, maintains social hierarchy.

"-Isms"

• Beyond personal bias; systematic social biases.
• Examples include sexism, racism, ageism, etc.

Racism

• Interaction of individual biases with societal biases.
• Creates social hierarchy based on race.

Social Categorization

• Simplifies environment by grouping similar characteristics.
• Mental shortcuts and schemas.
• Basic Categories: Race, gender, age.
• Subtypes: Smaller groups within categories.

Intersectionality

• People belong to multiple categories simultaneously.
• Complex study due to intersecting identities.

Consequences of Categorization

• Ingroups vs. Outgroups: Basic cognitive distinctions.
• Outgroup Homogeneity: Perceiving outgroups as more similar.
• Cross-Race Identification Bias: Other races "all look alike."

Stereotype Accuracy

• Challenges in defining accuracy.
• Methodological issues for assumptions of accuracy.

Stereotype Activation and Application

• Endorsement vs. Activation: Agreement vs. accessibility.
• Application: Using stereotypes for judgment.
• Process: Categorization → Activation → Application

Prejudice Theories

• Old-Fashioned Prejudice: Explicit belief in group inferiority.
• Contemporary Theories:
  • Modern Symbolic Prejudice: Justified on unprejudiced grounds.
  • Ambivalent Prejudice: Simultaneous positive and negative feelings.
  • Aversive Prejudice: Egalitarian beliefs with implicit negative feelings.

Social Context and Prejudice

• Influenced by environment, resources, and social identity.
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Behavior influences perceptions and actions.

Social Identity Theory

• Belonging and positive social identity.
• Factors:
  • Self-Categorization, Optimal Distinctiveness, Threat to Group.

Relative Deprivation Theory

• Perceived disparities based on comparison.
• Personal vs. Group Deprivation: Individual vs. group perceptions.

Realistic Conflict Theory

• Group competition for resources leads to prejudice.
• Robber’s Cave Study: Classic example of conflict and cooperation.

Integrated Threat Theory

• Threat Types: Realistic, symbolic, intergroup anxiety.

The Experience of Discrimination

• Stigmatized Groups: Lack social privilege, depend on context.
• Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming a negative stereotype.
• General Features: Situational pressures, negative effects on performance.

Stereotype Influence Studies

• Various studies measuring stereotype impacts on test performances.
• Stereotype Lift: Advantage awareness improves performance.

Summary

• Stereotypes, identity, and prejudice are complex, multi-faceted topics influencing social interactions and perceptions.
• Understanding, measuring, and addressing these biases require comprehensive approaches.