Reformation Overview

Overview

This lecture traces the roots, key events, and major figures of the Protestant Reformation, examining Catholic Church corruption, reform movements, the rise of Protestantism, and the Catholic response.

Corruption and Crisis in the Late Medieval Catholic Church

• The Catholic Church held monopolistic spiritual authority in Western Europe by 1517.
• Widespread corruption plagued the church hierarchy, including popes, bishops, and cardinals.
• Church offices were commonly obtained by bribery or familial connections, not merit.
• Parish priests were often poor, uneducated, and corrupt themselves.
• The Avignon Papacy and Great Schism undermined church credibility.

Early Reform Movements and Humanism

• The Waldensians (12th century) and Lollards (14th century) called for Church humility and questioned doctrines.
• Both movements were suppressed and had little impact beyond their origins.
• Jan Hus's Hussite movement succeeded temporarily in Bohemia, leading to a moderate national church compromise.
• Renaissance humanism encouraged return to biblical sources and internal reform, aided by Erasmus's Greek-Latin New Testament and the rise of printing and literacy.

Martin Luther and the Beginnings of the Reformation

• Luther, influenced by humanism, concluded salvation is by faith alone, not works.
• The 1517 sale of indulgences, especially by Johann Tetzel, prompted Luther’s 95 Theses.
• Pope Leo X demanded Luther recant, eventually excommunicating him; Luther publicly burned the papal bull.

Expansion and Political Dimensions of the Reformation

• Luther's ideas spread rapidly due to printing and political support from figures like Frederick III of Saxony.
• Luther translated the Bible into German and called for an end to clerical privilege and celibacy.
• The Peasants' War (1524–25) was partly inspired by Luther’s theology but condemned by Luther.
• The principle "cuius regio, eius religio" (ruler decides religion) was established.

Spread and Variations of Protestantism

• Lutheranism spread to Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and beyond via royal adoption.
• The English Reformation began when Henry VIII broke from Rome to secure a divorce.
• In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli and later John Calvin led distinct local reforms, with Calvinism emphasizing predestination and church-state integration.
• Radical groups like Anabaptists and Unitarians emerged, facing widespread persecution.

Catholic Counter-Reformation

• The Catholic Church began serious reforms under Pope Paul III and the Council of Trent (1545–63).
• Council reaffirmed Catholic doctrine, improved clerical education, and condemned Protestant ideas.
• The Jesuit order was founded to promote education and counter Protestantism.

Key Terms & Definitions

• Indulgence — Document granting remission of sin penalties in exchange for penance or payment.
• Predestination — Doctrine that God has already chosen who will be saved or damned.
• Transubstantiation — Catholic belief that bread and wine become Christ’s body and blood in the Mass.
• Consubstantiation — Lutheran belief that Christ is spiritually present in the Eucharist, but bread/wine remain unchanged.
• Anabaptist — Protestant sect advocating adult baptism, separation from the state, and communal living.
• Peace of Augsburg (1555) — Treaty allowing German princes to choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their states.

Action Items / Next Steps

• Review the 95 Theses and key points from the Augsburg Confession.
• Read summary of the Council of Trent decisions.
• Prepare comparison chart of Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic beliefs.