Lifespan Development Psychology Psyc 2100 Lecture Block 1: Theory and Research in Human Development Welcome to this course called Lifespan Development Psychology. To begin our journey, the importance of theory, history and research in human development must be emphasized. >>>>>>>>>>>>>> Development is lifelong, multi-dimensional, multi-directional, malleable and contained within many settings. We are talking about constancy and we are talking about change from cradle to grave, from conception to death. We are talking about consistency and we are talking about transformation. Humans continue to develop all through their lifespans. Lots of disciplines have contributed theories to this lifespan development concept�psychology, sociology, neuroscience, biology, anthropology, education, medicine, public health, social work, family studies. What can be observed in life is coupled with scientific research to give meaning to what we see and to improve the lives of humans. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> I will introduce you to 3 basic issues of development�continuity/discontinuity; universal/contextual; nature/nurture. 1.----Is development continuous or discontinuous? This question brings up the 1st basic development issue. Continuity pertains to the gradual, cumulative change from conception to death. Development takes place continually, not suddenly, after weeks and months of growth and practice. An example of continuity would be a seedling oak becoming a big oak tree; a baby saying a first word then sentences. Continuity involves quantitative change (or change in amount). Quantitative change refers to development which simply adds on in number or amount like getting taller, heavier, saying more words, talking more frequently. Quantitative development involves increases of physical or cognitive abilities that already exist. Continuous devel or continuity occurs thr additions to development already established. It does not require stages. Continuity says that early infant and child qualities can predict future adol and adult qualities. Freud believed in continuity. He believed that adult personality is basically formed by age 6 years. Continuity says that new development depends on earlier development and that aspects of earlier development show up in later development. Our musical preferences as adults have been shaped by the music we were exposed to as toddlers. This lends credence to the continuity side of the issue. Because of strong beliefs in continuity that early experience determines who we are as adults, we see more connections betw phenomena than really exist. Just because we crawl before we stand, doesn�t mean that crawling MUST come first for standing to occur. If a baby was prevented from crawling he/she would still learn to stand at the appropriate time. Personality and behavior exudes a certain amount of continuity which would explain why 10 to 15% of children are consistently shy and 10 to 15% are consistently very sociable. However, we tend to acquire the qualities that our environment shapes in us over the years rather than continue to exhibit those of our earliest years. Discontinuity pertains to development thr distinct stages in the life span. Each person goes thr a sequence of abrupt stages of qualitative change (or change in kind or type). Qualitative change involves transformation in kind, structure or organization, rather than just increases, of physical or cognitive abilities. Capabilities fit together in a new way allowing new behaviors not readily predictable from the old ones. An example would be the use of language or abstract thinking. Other examples of discontinuity would be a caterpillar suddenly becoming a butterfly; or a child changing from not being able to think abstractly, to being able to do so. Discontinuous devel or discontinuity involves reorganization or creation of entirely new aspects of development. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 2.---- The 2nd basic developmental issue involves contexts or settings.--Is development universal following the same course for all people? Or are there several possibilities depending on the individual�s context, setting and cultural diversity? Optimal development depends on the contexts in which it takes place, the settings. Human contact is essential for normal development. Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1989) has offered a way in which to visualize the contexts in which development unfolds using a diagram of concentric circles. The child is in the center with his/her biological makeup. Then comes the immediate environment as the next circle, followed by the social/economic circle, and encapsulated finally by the cultural circle. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 3.----The 3rd basic developmental issue involves the nature/nurture controversy. --To what extent are you the product of heredity? To what extent are you the product of your past and current environment? This controversy is not new�it has been around since the time of ancient Greece. Nature pertains to maturation, heredity, genetics, biology. Proponents believe development is the result of prewired genetic blueprints, or the sequential unfolding of inherited predispositions. We sit before we stand and walk; we say 1 word before talking in sentences; we undergo puberty when hormones are released on a predetermined timetable. Nature proponents believe that basic growth and development are dependent on the biological inheritance we were born with. Even for dramatic events in which all siblings share�like divorce, birth of a baby, loss of the wage earner/s job/s, move to a different neighborhood, death of a close family member�every child does not experience them identically because of biological inheritance. Nature proponents do acknowledge, though, the contribution of extreme conditions in environment that can stunt or depress development and growth --like the absence of stimulation and nutrition or the presence of hostility, apathy or coldness. Nurture pertains to experience, environment, learning, social contexts, culture. Proponents believe development is the result of things that happen to us after birth: nutrition, medical care or lack of it, drugs, accidents, family, peers, school experiences, tv, media, culture, etc. Even though children may be raised in the same family, each child�s family experience can be quite different. Age, gender, and personality trait differences may command differential treatment by parents. Parents may discipline differently depending on what type of discipline they judge to be more effective with a given child. One sibling may be sick more, or suffer more accidents. Nurture leans towards plasticity and the optimistic view that change is possible with new experiences. Neither nature nor nurture alone can account for development. The key is an interaction between both nature and nurture. Neither can be extracted from the other. They are inextricably intertwined. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> A brief history of developmental psychology is in order. Human development began to be studied scientifically in the 19th and 20th centuries. Darwin�s work foreshadowed the scientific study of the child. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and his theory of evolution fanned the flame of the nature proponents in the mid 19th century. Darwin stressed the process of natural selection whereby those organisms, humans included, possessing physical traits which gave them the edge in competing for food and water, in defeating and escaping predators, in surviving�these organisms would be the most likely to live long enough to reproduce young with similar advantageous physical traits. Thus certain physical traits would be naturally selected and handed down generation after generation, as long as the traits remained environmentally advantageous. The adaptive value of certain physical and behavioral characteristics became quite important in developmental theories. Darwin was the 1st to stress the developmental nature of infant behavior as an orderly change process. He believed humans could understand selves best by studying their origins as individuals and as a species. G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) is credited with being the founder of the child study movement. His work also hinted at lifespan development as he wrote a book on aging at a time when few existed. Hall and his student Arnold Gesell (1880-1961) described development in evolutionary terms. Development was genetically determined (nature) and occurred automatically. They compiled intensive data on all aspects of child development on large numbers of children of all ages. They used age-related averages to determine typical expected development. Alfred Binet (1857-1911) and colleague Theodore Simon in France made the 1st successful intelligence test to identify children with learning problems. The resultant score was able to predict school achievement but was not intended to measure intelligence or to predict life success. Individual differences in development were now a hot topic. Mid-20th century theories have impacted our modern day lifespan developmental theories. Under the psychoanalytic perspective, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Eric Erikson (1902-1994) are most influential. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Psychoanalytic theory is unique and different from all the rest. It has had a wide variety of influences on Western culture. Its founder, Sigmund Freud, is considered a giant or genius in the field of psychology, despite being shunned by academic, scientific psychology in recent years. The psychoanalytic approach concentrates on cases where the causes of behavior are hidden or mysterious. This approach is complex but has relatively few key ideas all of which are elegantly interconnected. The 4 key ideas are psychic determinism, internal structure, mental energy and psychic conflict. It emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes�those parts of the mind that are invisible or hidden from view, and which are difficult to understand. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> The internal structure of the mind consists of the id, ego and the superego. The mind is not the same thing as the brain. The brain is a physical organ; the mind is the psychological result of what the brain and the rest of the body do. Id�irrational and emotional part of the mind. Ego�the rational part of the mind. Superego�the moral part of the mind; the conscience. There�s a constant struggle among the Id, Ego and Superego with the Ego mediating betw the Id and the Superego. Anxiety is experienced when Id demands or Superego demands threaten to overpower the Ego. The Ego must balance between primitive urges and learned morals. This balancing act is responsible for the formation of personality. If compromise is not possible, the Ego uses defense mechanisms or largely unconscious distortions of thought or perception to reduce anxiety. Healthy people use defense mechanisms in dealing with stressful events, thus buying time while searching for the compromise or the realistic solution needed. Defense mechanisms allow for coping, and are okay as long as they are just temporary fixes and do not cover wide areas of behavior. Freud was a moderate who frowned on extremes and preferred the middle ground. He preferred the middle ground with behavior, attitudes, personality traits, and everything. Freud believed that child-rearing should exclude neglect at 1 extreme and instant gratification at the other extreme. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Erikson emphasizes the emergence of self, the search for identity and the person�s relationship with others. Erikson was one of the first researchers to stress the importance of the entire lifespan. This was a big departure from Freud�s philosophy that the first 5 or 6 years of a person�s life were the absolute most formative and the rest of devel was far less important. Social forces that shape the lifespan were also stressed by Erikson thus explaining the relationship of culture and the individual. After birth, from cradle to grave, there are 8 distinct psychosocial stages and the accomplishments of later stages depend on the successful resolution of earlier stages. Each of the 8 stages has a specific developmental crisis, a critical period in the formation of the personality. How the crisis or conflict is resolved determines how well future conflicts will be resolved. There is an option with each crisis to choose betw a positive choice and a potentially negative alternative. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Behaviorism contributed as well to the lifespan development study. Behavior and thus personality, is directly dependent on the consequences, the rewards as well as the punishments, in your past and present environment. Behavior is the result� the effect. Environment, past and present, is the cause�the ONLY cause. You (your personality, your behavior) are the direct result of your present and past environment. >>>>>>>>>>>>>> Classical conditioning involves the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus to produce a response. This response can be a physiological response like salivation or muscle tension. Or it can be an emotional response like fear, anger or joy. The person you can blame for classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who accidentally discovered classical conditioning in the 1920�s when studying salivation and digestion in dogs. He noticed salivation did not wait until the meat powder could be seen or smelled. Dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the experimenter or the sound of his footsteps. Pavlov did elaborate research and came up with 4 main components of classical conditioning: US, CS, UR, CR. US is an uncondit (unlearned) stim; a stimulus that automatically produces emot or physiological response. Example: meat powder. CS is a conditioned (learned) stimulus; a stimulus that evokes an emot or physiol response after conditioning or learning. Example: bell or tuning fork, sound of the can opener. It used to be neutral but now has a different meaning. UR: uncond (unlearned) response; naturally occuring emot or physiol resp; does not have to be learned. Example: salivation. CR: cond resp; a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Example: salivation. The UR and CR are the same response but are triggered by different stimuli. Generally the UR is the more intense response. Training a cat to stay off the table involves classical conditioning. You hiss and squirt the cat when it attempts to jump onto the table. Eventually, just hissing is enough to engender fear and scare the cat away. Classical conditioning goes beyond Pavlov�s dogs and physiological responses. As I said before, clas cond includes emot responses as well. Clas cond incorporates environmental stimuli that trigger emotional reactions. Most of human emotions are produced by stimuli that have acquired significance through classical conditioning. Hearing your favorite song may stir romantic memories. Smelling certain perfumes may elicit feelings of warmth or feelings of hate. If you have ever been creamed at a red light, you may become anxious at every red light for weeks. Mention the words �school� or �homework� to a child who is struggling, and you can see the wave of unhappiness flutter across his/her face. In the beginning, all of these examples necessitated a paired association of a conditioned stimulus with an uncond stim to evoke an uncond response. Eventually the cond stim could elicit the response on its own. The concepts are associated because they occur close together in time and space and the meaning of 1 concept has changed the meaning of the other. Watson classically condit fear into 11 month old Little Albert by pairing a loud frightening noise with a white furry rat. He concluded that he could manipulate children�s behavior by controlling the environment. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Operant cond is learning in which voluntary behav is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents. B.F. Skinner is credited with discovering oper cond. Consequences: events that follow an action like praise and punishment. Antecedents: events that precede an action like cues and prompts. Operant cond is responsible for almost every learned skill or ability that you have acquired since your birth. More to come with chapter 4. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Social Learning Theory is another major contributor to lifespan development psychology. Behaviorism and its emphasis on learning--consequences and paired associations and the pleasure/pain principle-- leaves out some important things�mental life and thought, conscious experience, motivation, emotions, free will, the unconscious. Social learning theories attempt to provide the missing links and enhance or broaden behaviorism. The causes of behavior are located solely in the world according to behaviorism; the causes of behavior are located solely in your mind according to humanism. According to social learning, the causes of behavior are the interactions betw the world and the mind. Observational learning or modeling is an important feature of Albert Bandura�s theory. Observational learning or social learning is knowledge or behavior acquired through exposure to others and to the consequences they experience. It involves a choice to imitate�an active role in learning. It is a bridge between behavioral and cognitive learning theories. Observational or social learning theory was credited in 1977 to Bandura, a leading expert who found that traditional behavioral theories of learning were not enough-- incomplete. The important social influences on learning had to also be included. These social influences played a heavy role in aggression and in prosocial behavior also. Famous Bobo doll experiment used an inflated clown on a round weighted base that popped back up after it was hit. This experiment demonstrated that children learn just by watching the behavior of others. All groups learned the behavior but the group which witnessed punishing consequences was less likely to display the new knowledge. Watching others get rewarded or punished will help someone decide to do or not to do the same behavior. Children become more selective in choosing to copy what they observe. --ie my sister and I Basic principle of observ learning is that a behavior can best be learned by watching someone else perform it correctly. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Piaget�s cognitive developmental theory has impacted lifespan development psychology and we will talk more in depth about his theory in lessons to come on cognitive development. Development, including cognitive development, is bidirectional, not simply active or passive. We call this reciprocal determinism--Children change their world as it also changes them. Natural tendencies or internal predispositions lead children to make certain choices and respond certain ways to environmental stimuli which in turn can alter or change the stimuli. A child with a cheery disposition with ready smiles will get rewarded with positive responses from adults and will likely smile even more. A grumpy, sour disposition will trigger less favorable adult responses from these very same adults. Thus the environment for each child is different, though the adults in it are the same. And the child is the trigger for the differential treatment. A child with musical talent may choose activities or request items that further develop this musical tendency. In a sense the child is sculpting or initiating development. By the same token, external events play a large role in sculpting development. For instance, divorce affects a child and the child�s reaction or response to it is triggered by the event. Thus development can be triggered from within a child or externally from the environment. And as devel unfolds both the child and the environment experience changes with each affecting the other�reciprocal determinism. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Information processing The information-processing approach is another important element in lifespan development psychology. It focuses on perception, problem-solving, learning, memory,.and what children do with information from the time they first experience it until they first use it. It observes and analyzes the mental processes involved in information gathering and handling. Using the simple learning example known as habituation, information processing theorists have proposed that even newborns have the ability to represent things in memory. Habituation is getting used to a repeated stimulus, getting bored, so that you no longer pay attention to it. Repeated stimuli are not as interesting after a while, and disinterest and looking away occurs. Infants paying more attention to new information or stimuli, must remember the old. In order to compare new info with info already experienced, a mental image or representation of the old stimuli must be in service. According to information-processing theorists, the more able a baby is to differentiate betw old and new stimuli, the more intelligent he/she is. (Fantz 63-75) Babies less than 2 days old prefer curved to straight lines, complex to simple patterns, 3 dimensional to 2 dimensional objects, pictures of faces over pictures of other things, NEW to familiar sights. Information processing has expanded to include cognitive neuroscience which studies the changes in the brain as related to changes in behavior and cognition. The technological advances allowing brain imaging and activity are responsible. >>>>>>>>>>>>> The contexts of development can be subdivided into 3 categories: Ethology and evolutionary developmental psychology, Vygotsky�s sociocultural theory, and Bronfenbrenner�s ecological systems theory. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> The 1st category is ethology and evolutionary developmental psychology---Ethology involves the survival value of behavior as first studied by Darwin. Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen studied imprinting which led to the concept of the critical period. Imprinting is the behavior of baby birds which will cling to a substitute mother if the mother is not present during a specific period and the substitute is. This specific period is called the critical period, a limited time span biologically preparing the organism to adapt if there is a supportive environment. In the case of humans, the critical period is called a sensitive period instead and is less constrained by an exact time window. Certain development is more likely because the child is more responsive to the environment at this time. A critical/sensitive period is a specific time during devel when an event has its greatest impact. Prenatally, drugs, viruses and x-rays can do insurmountable damage or they can be unnoticed depending on critical periods of developing organs. Right after birth proper nourishment is critical as brain growth escalates. Brain damage may occur with undernourishment. During the 1st 6 months to a year, face to face interaction with a sensitive caregiver is essential for an infant to grow brain circuits that regulate emotional excitement. The ability to focus the eyes have a critical period that includes the first 3 years. If crossed eyes are not corrected before the age of 3, then the abil to focus will be permanently impaired. Biology and evolutionary influences which make survival more possible are more important in the 1st half year of life. Learning and culture become more important afterwards. >>>>>>>>>>>>>> Vygotsky�s sociocultural theory is the 2nd subdivision of contexts of development. It focuses on early interactions with adults. Caregivers influence cognitive development by guiding their babies� participation in play and providing stimulation for learning. Vygotsky�s theory of cognitive development is an example of the social-contextual approach. He stressed the potential of learning if given mediated help, called the zone of proximal development. There is a potential for learning in every baby or child that will be realized if he/she is given active help from others. Thr adult help, babies acquire skills neces for further devel. Others deliberately structure the environment to maximize learning & can enable speedier learning at earlier ages than is typical. Culture is important. This explains the cultural differences we find in cognitive development. Different cultures value and applaud different proficiencies in their children depending on cultural relevance and usefulness. Children bounce ideas off of the significant people around them. This is what promotes further growth. Vygotsky�s theory also emphasizes the importance of language in cognitive development. Language�is an abstract, rule-governed system of arbitrary symbols that can be combined in countless ways to communicate information. Language does not mean the same thing as speech. The communication of info can take place without words. The sign language of people with hearing impairments is a genuine language even without speech or audible words---language without speech. And words can take place without the communication of info. Parrots imitate sounds and words but nothing is being symbolized so do not display language---speech without language.
Bronfenbrenner�s ecological systems theory is the 3rd category of contexts of development. Optimal child development depends on the contexts in which it takes place, the settings. Human contact is essential for normal development. Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1989) has offered a way in which to visualize the contexts in which development unfolds using a diagram of concentric circles. The child is in the center with his/her biological makeup. Then comes the immediate environment as the next circle, followed by the social/economic circle, and encapsulated finally by the cultural circle. Biological makeup is the developmental context at the center and consists of these 3 things---evolutionary heritage, indiv genetic inheritance (DNA), and characteristics that result from interactions betw genes and the environment. 1. Evolutionary heritage greatly affects human behavior. Because of evolutionary heritage we have--- a strong disposition to explore and master the environment with a timetable that determines the development of abilities�like the abilities to grasp, to walk, to talk, the devel of fear and separation anxiety. Because of evolutionary heritage, humans have an innate propensity for learning and speech, a strong inquisitiveness, a desire to solve problems and to invent. Because of evolutionary heritage, humans have a built-in tendency to be social. Early social relationships elicit caregiver responses that allow survival. Babies have years to wait before they are self-sufficient so they need to enlist the help of others. 2. The 2nd thing mentioned as part of biological makeup is individual genetic inheritance. Indiv genetic inheritance is called DNA, and is directly responsible for temperament, differences in stress responses, activity levels, and cautiousness. DNA is also indirectly responsible for temperament due to the reactions of other people responding to these inherited differences. 3. And the 3rd thing which makes up the biological make-up of an individual is the interaction betw genes and the environment. Interactions betw genes and the environment are already evidenced by the time of birth. Environmental factors such as maternal health, nutrition, drugs, alcohol, teratogens (harmful environmental agents) have already interacted with the biology of the baby in utero. The brain and the CNS were espec vulnerable to the effects of the prenatal environment, and the brain and the CNS (central nervous system) are espec influential in further development and behavior. Genes limit the environment�s influence on development thr a process called canalization. Canalization channels devel and behavior along a prescribed path. Biology is boss! ie Babies babble with consonant/vowel combinations regardless of the context of culture and the social/economic context. This behav is said to be strongly canalized. Strong canalization occurs for some things in the beginning, with environment having little influence at first and then plenty of it later. ie�institutionalism, an environmental extreme, does not affect infants up to 4 mons. old due to heavy canalization and biology being the boss; in infants aged 4 to 12 months institutionalism dramatically and negatively impacts them showing that older babies are more vulnerable to this environmental context. There is undeniably an interaction betw genes and experience, betw nature and nurture. Biological blueprints trigger new behaviors and experiences. And new behav and experience promote more development of brain structure and connections. Cognition and language are triggered by genetics but can be altered or changed by experience. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> -----The first circle (microsystem) surrounds the child and his/her biological makeup, and represents his/her immediate environment including home, parents, siblings, grandparents, cousins, toys, playgrounds, peers, classrooms, teachers, church, day care, neighborhood, playground sports, dancing, scouts, little league, and other people and things with which the child (person) has direct contact. (The mesosystem is the connections betw microsystems.) With experience of unconditional love, children have optimal development opportunity---With experience of neglect and physical or emotional abuse, devel is damaged. With experience of parents with a warm, secure, stable marriage bond, devel is enhanced. With experience of parents with a marriage filled with hostility, coldness and violence, devel. is hampered. Family peace or family fighting lives on in the lives of children after they are adults and raising their own families. Harsh, unreasonable punishing techniques are recycled and repeated unless the person establishes a solid, supportive marriage relationship that is dissimilar from the one he/she was exposed to in childhood. Children influence parents as well as parents influence children. The behavior and characteristics of children influence the behavior and characteristics of parents. There is reciprocal determinism or a 2-way process by which each influences the other. Reciprocal determinism partially explains why premature babies from very low-income homes have more problems than those from middle-class homes. Premature infants are special challenges with additional needs. Added to an already stressed parent burdened with poverty, a premature infant demands more than the parent is able to give, so the baby receives less than what is needed and becomes high-risk. The baby�s condition interacts with the parent�s overtaxed psychological state, less than optimal care is offered, and the baby fails to thrive. As for the issue of fairness�fairness is giving what is needed, NOT giving the same to everyone. You would not hold back from bringing a hurting child to a dentist to fix a toothache, just because you did not have the money or energy to transport the sisters and brothers as well. Likewise, you would not deny a child with learning or physical challenges to have extra time on a test simply because it would not be �fair� to the others. They do not need it. You do not allow a child to walk without shoes to school once he/she outgrows his/hers. You do not deprive this needy child just because there is not enough money to buy everyone a pair of new shoes. You do not ignore the tears of a child who is upset, because you just do not have the time at the moment to talk tenderly to and hug the others as well. You would not refuse the Heimlich maneuver to a choking person in need, simply because you were unable to give it to everyone else in the restaurant. Fairness is giving what is needed, not giving equal or the same. This does not apply, however, when dividing a candy bar or treat. As close to the same as possible would prevent hurt feelings. The way to accomplish this so everyone is satisfied is to allow one child to divide the treat and the other child to pick first. There are families called non-traditional families�adult career women, financially secure, who choose to be moms without marriage, single people who adopt, and families with homosexual parents. Factors like social support from family and friends, parental adjustment, and parenting skills are more important than marriage status, sexual orientation, or social class. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> -----Social and economic context (exosystem) is the next circle which envelops the child and his/her immediate environment. It encompasses the community in which all the immediate environments like family, peers, school, neighborhood, playground, etc., are contained. social institutions like local, state and national governments, health-care systems and organized religion social and economic conditions like birth and marriage rates, avg family size, crime rates, employment patterns, income levels, and inflation rates. The social/economic context includes people and things that influence the child�s development but with which the child has no direct contact. ie� school board, parents� bosses, health care, PTA, college classes of older siblings, neighborhood coffee klatch, media, The social/economic context also includes negative things such as� unemployment, high crime poorly funded schools, drug abuse, inadequate transportation, lack of safe playgrounds, >>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Some of the family changes caused by social and economic factors include: working moms, single-parenting, divorce and socioeconomic status (SES). As for mothers working�the impact of this on child development depends on the satisfaction level of the working mother whether she is employed outside the home or is a stay-at-home mom. The impact of working moms on child development also depends on the attitude of the husband. In general, 2-parent families with a stay-at-home mom and 2-parent families with a working-outside-the-home mom have few differences. Another family change impacted by social and economic factors is single-parenting�Children of unmarried teens often have cognitive lags or behav problems in preschool. The unmarried teen mothers have inadequate education and are impoverished. And it is the stress of poverty that seems to be more of a factor in the developmental problems of the children than the single parenthood. But there are 3 other factors that can override some of the negative effects of poverty: if the teen mothers finish high school if the teens receive adequate social support from family if the teen mom has high enough cognitive development to be able to use good child-rearing skills And a 3rd family change impacted by social and economic factors is divorced parents�Divorce that ends the conflict betw parents is better than a conflict-filled marriage, especially if there is continued contact by the child with both parents. Divorce where the bitterness lives on even after divorce, is not better than a conflict-filled marriage. Children caught in the middle or used as tug-of-war or grilled laboriously after visits with the other parent�these children adjust the worst to divorce. So too do those children of divorce whose custodial parent is under added stress and depression due to a sharp decrease in income. An extremely important influence of the social and economic context is social class�the grouping of people within a society on the basis of their income, occupation, and education. This is called SES or socioeconomic status. Working-class parents in general use more physical discipline and emphasize obedience; strict rules may protect children from dangers in the environment. Middle-class parents tend to reason with their children and emphasize self-expression; the best results are when consistency and firmness are coupled with including the child in rule and decision-making. Each of these types of child-rearing have potential disadvantages. Physical discipline can lead to child abuse; reasoning can lead to extremes and unmanageable guilt. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> -----The outermost ring includes the cultural context (macrosystem). It contains ideology as well as structure. Culture helps to shape the behavior of the people in it. People of the same culture tend to show certain patterns of personality characteristics, cognitive skills and social relationships. Japan vs USA--conformity to the group vs indiv assertiveness Japan--respect, agreeableness, emotional maturity, self-control, courtesy, dependency, tight family bonds, newborns viewed as needing to be made dependent and bound to the group as soon as possible (thus the necessity to have infants and young children sleep with their mothers), mothers never separate from young children and infants, USA�independency, individuality, autonomy; infants are born dependent and need to be socialized to become independent (thus the necessity to train a baby to sleep alone; 60% of American babies sleep in separate rooms from parents by age of 3 months; 80% do by age 6 months). {{Personal opinion from experience�insist on toddlers beginning the night in their own beds, but if they come to you in the middle of the night, allow them the comfort of remaining with you. They need you for some reason and should not be turned away. If you prefer, you can accompany them back to their own rooms, but you must be sure that the child�s emotional needs have been satisfied and fears squashed before returning to bed.}} The culture context contains the beliefs, attitudes, values and guidelines for behavior of the child�s society. It influences things like SES, ethnicity, religion, political party, government, and laws. Culture influences what children are taught at home and at school, what is right and what is wrong. Culture is a group�s total way of life and is constantly changing. 31% of US citizens in 2003 belonged to an ethnic or racial minority. (US Census Bureau) This was a 3-fold increase since the 1930�s. By 2050, 50% of the US will belong to an ethnic or racial minority. The chronosystem is the time-dependent or temporal dimension of the contextual levels and includes cohort or socio-historical factors. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> What is the primary way psyc achieves its goals to describe, explain, predict and control or influence development and behavior? RESEARCH 2 kinds of research�descriptive including correlations and experimental both of which have advantages and disadvantages, [and are equally useful]. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Descriptive research observes and describes phenomena that already exist. It answers the who, what, where, and when of behavior. It measures a variable. It collects detailed information using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, case studies and ethnography. Observation can be naturalistic occurring in natural settings or structured occurring in a lab. Natural experiment�used when lab study is not feasible; compares groups of people with circumstances that differ naturally along the critical dimensions being studied; allows for ruling out confounding factors, uses everyday settings to observe behavior and records observations meticulously. (Jane Goodall�s work with chimps; 1-way mirrored playrooms.) You cannot randomly assign families to teens or pre-teens or whatever developmental age you are interested in studying. Instead you gather families that already exist with children the ages you want. You choose families as similar as possible so that other factors, like income, marital satisfaction, child-rearing techniques etc. do not interfere or confound your interpretations. Interviews can be clinical with flexible questioning procedures or structured which asks all subjects the same questions in the same manner. Case studies can be clinical combining interviews, observations, recordings, surveys and tests. Ethnography studies culture or a distinct social group by the researcher becoming embedded in the culture as an observer. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Correlation is an example of descriptive research. Correlations are statistical descriptions of how closely 2 variables are related. They can allow for general predictions to be made but they do NOT prove cause and effect. Taller people tend to weigh more than shorter people, and if you know a person�s height you are more able to predict the weight (better than you could predict it if you knew neither variable). We say the variables of height and weight are correlated, but one does not cause the other. If you gain weight, this will not cause you to grow taller. And if you lose weight, this will not cause you to grow shorter. Correlations express whether changes in 1 variable are accompanied by changes in another�not cause and effect. There may be 3rd variable unaccounted for that changes either or both of the 2 variables in the correlation. ie�The more people weigh, the higher their salaries. This is because a 3rd variable, age/experience, affects both weight and earnings. --The greater the degree of crowding in cities, the higher the crime rate. Crowding and crime are both related to poverty, the 3rd variable that affects both of them. --The colder the winter, the greater the # of births the next fall. Other factors are involved here. People stay indoors more when it is cold outside and tend to engage in more snuggling and cuddling. This leads to getting something straight between them with resultant deliveries 9 months later. --One study found a correlation between the number of storks of a city and the number of births. As it turns out, the city had more chimneys in which the storks could nest due to a denser population. Denser populations also have more babies�more poodles, more french fries consumption, more crime. This does NOT mean that poodles cause more murders, or eating french fries causes criminal behavior. -- A nutritionist claimed that drinking a lot of milk may cause juvenile deliquency. Why? Because adolescent males who get into trouble frequently, drink more than average amounts of milk. Though this is an interesting observation, it in no way infers causation. Young males who mature early are more likely to be aggressive and get into trouble. Early maturers are also growing rapidly and have increased appetites. Maybe maturing early has a greater effect on deliquency; maybe there is some other completely unknown factor involved. -- A popular astrologer in 1975 (Jeanne Dixon) stated that violent crime rises and falls with lunar cycles, believing that the moon affects human behavior. Increased crime could be due to darker nights, or the fact that bills are due at the first of the month, or for some other factor not even considered. Studies in 1985 and 1989 disproved the alleged �lunar effect� (Rotton & Kelly, 85; Coates et al.,89). To reiterate--- correlation can not be equated with cause and effect. It is unwise to presume that 1 thing caused another simply because the 2 factors are highly correlated. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> A correlation is expressed in a decimal number called a correlation coefficient which ranges from +1.0 and �1.0. A correlation number shows both the strength and the direction of a relationship betw 2 variables. The closer the number is to +1 or �1, the stronger the correlation or the stronger the relationship. So when you are looking for strength, you disregard the signs, +and -, and pay attention to the absolute value, the number following the decimal. The higher the # the stronger the correlation. �.8 is a stronger correlation than a +.6, and denotes a stronger relationship between the 2 variables. The + and � signs show direction of the relationship. Positive correlation�2 factors of a relationship vary in the same direction. They either both increase together or they both decrease together. ie�years of education and average annual earnings. --calories consumed and weight gained. Negative correlation�2 factors of a relationship vary in the opposite direction. As 1 increases the other decreases, or as 1 decreases the other increases. ie�the amount of nighttime infant crying and the amt of parental sleep. --height of a person and the distance betw head and ceiling. --cost of a theater ticket and the distance from the stage. --the outside temp and the amt of clothes worn. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Experimental research goes beyond descriptive research and predictions. Variables are held constant while the independent variable is manipulated, and the effects are carefully recorded. One group is a control group providing a base to use in comparing the other groups. Changes are introduced in a controlled manner to see if a statistically significant difference occurs among the behavior of the groups which received the treatment change (dependent variables) as opposed to the behavior of the groups which did not. If a statistically significant difference does occur, then the differences found were not likely due to chance but rather were due to the treatment given. There is a lot more than observing and describing going on. Caution�Statistically significant does not necessarily mean important or meaningful, just that the differences found were not likely due to chance. To set up experimental research, you would first gather subjects (people, animals) and assign them randomly to groups. By using randomization or random assignment, you come closer to assuring that each subject has an equal chance to be in any group and that the groups are thus comparable. To 1 or more of these groups you would change the treatment (perhaps give a certain dose of a drug, or teach a certain reading program) and then compare the results to the results of the other groups using statistics. Another vital element in experimental research is replication. A study found to be statistically significant must be repeated or replicated with the same results before it is accepted as credible. Larger samples are more accurate. The more subjects the better. If you were to collect enough M&M�s and sort them by color, you would have 30% brown ones, 20% red ones, 20% yellow ones, 10% green ones, 10% orange ones, and 10% blue ones. But if you just grabbed 10, I doubt seriously if you would have 3 brown, 2 red, 2 yellow, 1 green, 1 orange and 1 blue. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> To study development----3 types of research patterns are used: longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential which is a combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional. A longitudinal study�observes change over time. The same group of people is followed over a certain amount of time. A longitudinal study is subject to the threat of cohort effects which would not generalize from 1 time and place to another. A cross-sectional study�compares groups of people of different ages at the same time. It is not able to show indiv changes but rather group averages. Consider a study on full-time early daycare and its effects on children. Longitudinal research�would compare 2 groups of children: 1 placed in daycare at 3 months of age; and 1 group raised at home for the first year and a ?. The study would assess the groups for 14 years or so. Cross-sectional research�would choose children aged 1 to 14 from similar families, ? of whom had been placed in daycare at age 3 months and ? of whom had spent the first year and a ? at home. 1 year old children would be compared with each other, 2 year olds, 3 year olds etc. Cross-sectional designs are quicker and cheaper but fail to show process or individual change. For instance if you were studying the average heights of children the resulting curve would be smooth, but would not be a good indicator of year to year growth, nor growth spurts of indiv children. All this unevenness would be averaged out in a group curve from a cross-sectional design. Individual differences can be discovered only by studying the same children over time like in a longitudinal design. To get more mileage, and have the advantages of both, developmentalists can combine longitudinal and cross-sectional research. The result would be what is called a sequential design. It studies several age groups at the same time and follows them across overlapping periods. For instance, with a sequential (or accelerated longitudinal) design, you would follow groups of 1, 4, 7, and 10 yr olds for 4 years. The new 4 yr olds would be compared to the old 4 yrs. old, the new 7 yr olds with the old 7 yr olds, and the new 10 yr olds with the old ones. In a much shorter time you could show indiv growth change. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Ethics in research guard against exploitation especially of the most vulnerable�young, elderly and those with either physical ailments or cognitive deficits. Ethics require protection of subjects from physical or psychological harm, informed consent and explanations, privacy and identity protection, knowledge of results received, and learning of any beneficial treatments discovered.