History of the Crusades

Early Islamic Expansion

• 7th Century: Arab conquests establish a large caliphate from Central Asia to Iberia.
• Religious Division: Mediterranean split between Muslims in the south and Christians in the north.
  • Christian Division: Latin Church (west) vs. Greek Orthodox Church (east/Byzantine Empire).
• Peace and Pilgrimage: Christians can pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

Rise of the Seljuk Turks

• 10th Century: Turk chieftain Seljuk converts to Sunni Islam.
• Conquests:
  • Seljuk Turks conquer Shiite Persia and Jerusalem.
  • Restrictions on Christian pilgrims.
• Threat to Constantinople: Turks reach the gates; Emperor Alexios I seeks Western help.

Pope Urban II and the Crusades

• Council of Clermont (1095): Pope Urban II calls for Christians to reclaim holy lands.
  • Promises absolution of sins.
• Crusader Groups:
  • Nobles' Crusade: well-armed knights.
  • People's Crusade: non-combatants, including women and children.

Early Crusade Misfortunes

• Pillaging and Persecution: People’s Crusade pillage, slaughter Jews, decimated in Hungary.
• Byzantine and Turkish Conflicts: Survivors taken by Alexios I, but are defeated near Nicaea.

First Crusade Successes

• Siege of Antioch (1097): Long siege due to Seljuk disunity.
• Jerusalem Falls (1099): Massacre of Muslim and Jewish residents.
• Latin States Formed:
  • County of Edessa, Principality of Antioch, Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Challenges and Further Crusades

• Pope’s New Crusade:
  • Failure in Anatolia.
  • Crusader states hold despite Fatimid offensives and Seljuk divisions.
• Tripoli Falls (1109): Creation of County of Tripoli.
• Rise of Muslim Powers:
  • Zengi captures Edessa (1143), prompting more crusades.

Shifting Power Dynamics

• Nur al-Din and Saladin:
  • Unification of Muslim Syria.
  • Saladin takes Egypt, founds Ayyubid dynasty.
• Saladin’s Offensive (1187):
  • Defeats Crusaders at Tiberias.
  • Rapid conquest, except Tyre, Tripoli, Antioch.

Third Crusade and Aftermath

• Richard the Lionheart:
  • Conquers Acre, but not Jerusalem.
  • Negotiates access for pilgrims.
• Saladin’s Death (1193): Territory divided.

Later Crusades and Decline

• Fourth Crusade (1204): Sack of Constantinople, creation of Latin Empire.
• Failures in Egypt: Multiple failed sieges, particularly Damietta.

Final Crusader States

• Mongol and Mamluk Influence:
  • Mongols threaten, Mamluks solidify control.
  • Baibars takes Antioch (1268).
• End of Crusader States (1291): Fall of Acre, dispersal to Cyprus, and other regions.

Legacy

• Knights Hospitaller: Continue in Malta after Rhodes falls.
• Teutonic Order: Dissolved by Napoleon.

Conclusion: The Crusades led to significant religious, territorial, and cultural shifts over centuries, shaping the medieval history of Europe and the Middle East.