Overview
This lecture introduces the different ways of knowing, focusing on how scientific methods in psychology differ from other approaches and emphasizing the features and assumptions that define science.
Ways of Knowing
- Ways of knowing are divided into empirical (based on experience) and non-empirical (not based on experience) methods.
- Non-empirical methods include Authority (believing experts) and Logic (reasoning based on premises).
- Authority is unreliable because authorities can be wrong or disagree with each other.
- Logic, while useful, can lead to false conclusions if the premises are incorrect.
- Empirical methods are grounded in observation and experience.
- Empirical methods subdivide into intuition (instinctive judgments) and scientific (systematic observation) approaches.
- Intuition and common sense are limited by cultural variation and reliance on "what works" rather than true causality.
Characteristics of Science
- Science is empirical, relying primarily on observable evidence.
- Science is objective; observations should be consistent across different observers.
- Science is self-correcting; new evidence can overturn previous knowledge.
- Science is progressive and tentative, always open to revision as new data emerge.
- Scientists prefer simpler explanations (principle of parsimony) unless complexity is needed.
- Scientific knowledge is developed through theory, organizing and explaining observed regularities.
Scientific Assumptions and Processes
- Science assumes the reality, rationality, and regularity of the world (doctrine of realism).
- Science treats every question as a "puzzle" that can be solved through systematic investigation.
- Determinism is a core assumption: all events have causes and can, in principle, be predicted.
- Laws describe consistent relationships between events, but correlation does not imply causation.
- Causes must precede effects; directionality is crucial in determining causality.
Theories, Hypotheses, and Operational Definitions
- A theory is a set of statements about relationships between variables, including unobservable concepts explaining phenomena.
- To be scientific, a theory must be falsifiable (able to be disproven).
- Theories organize knowledge, predict new relationships, and guide research.
- A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts a relationship, often framed as "if-then."
- Operationalism requires scientific concepts to be defined by observable operations.
- Operational definitions specify precise procedures for measuring or manipulating concepts in research.
- Convergent operations use multiple operational definitions to study the same concept.
Paradigms and Scientific Change
- A paradigm is a widely accepted framework or approach in a scientific field.
- Paradigms shift when new evidence challenges established theories, as in recent findings about psychotherapy effectiveness and eyewitness memory.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Empirical — Based on observation or experience.
- Authority — Accepting information as true because an expert says so.
- Logic — Drawing conclusions through reasoning from premises.
- Objectivity — Observations independent of personal bias.
- Parsimony — Preference for the simplest sufficient explanation.
- Theory — A set of statements explaining relationships among variables.
- Falsifiability — The ability of a theory to be disproven through evidence.
- Operational Definition — Specific procedures used to measure or define a concept.
- Paradigm — A dominant theoretical or methodological framework in science.
- Determinism — The belief that all events have causes.
- Correlation — A statistical relationship between two variables, not implying causation.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Participate in online discussions and respond to peers as part of your participation grade.
- Ask questions about the course or lecture material if you have concerns.
- Review lecture content, focusing on characteristics of scientific methods and definitions.