China in 1500: Ming and Qing Dynasties

Introduction

• Examined three major 16th-century empires in Northern Eurasia:
  • Ming and Qing Dynasties in China
  • Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan
  • Russian Empire
• Key themes:
  • Significant political conflicts (internal and external)
  • Political growth and strengthening (short term)
  • Significant economic growth due to international trade
  • Cultural conflicts resulting from trade

Historical Background: China

• Chinese civilization:

  • One of the oldest and most advanced globally
  • Innovations: paper, movable-type printing, the compass, gunpowder
  • First to use paper money (10th century)

• Political history:

  • Periods of unity and disunity
  • Dominance by steppe peoples, who were often assimilated
  • Earliest unified dynasty: Shang (12th century BC)

• Classical period (6th-9th centuries):

  • Advances in agriculture => population growth
  • Population doubled
  • Creation of enduring state structure: six ministries (Personnel, Finance, Rights/Religion, Army, Justice, Public Works)
  • Examination system for officials
  • Golden Age of arts and literature

• Cultural influence:

  • Buddhism from India
  • Strong traditional Chinese religion (Confucianism)

Confucianism

• Philosophy/ethical system by Confucius

• Emphasizes social harmony through hierarchy and morality

• Duties based on relationships (juniors and seniors)

• Education and ancestor veneration

• Dominance in Central Asia

• Vulnerability to nomadic conquests (e.g., Mongols)

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

• Mongol invasions (13th-14th centuries) => Ming establishment

• Rebellion led by Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu Emperor)

• Consolidation under Yongle Emperor:

  • Rejected foreign influence
  • Moved capital to Beijing
  • Built Imperial City and Forbidden City
  • Expanded tribute system via Zheng He's explorations (stopped in 1433)

Cultural Flourishing

• Advances in literature, poetry, painting, music
• Movable-type printing
• Ceramics and porcelain (export to Europe)
• Interaction with European scientific and technological advances

Economic Growth

• Integration into the world economy
• Production of porcelain, silk, and cotton

Decline and Downfall

• Natural disasters (Little Ice Age, 1556 earthquake, epidemic)
• Economic issues:
  • Dependency on silver (trade disruption)
  • Failed paper currency
• Social unrest:
  • Unpaid military, starving peasants
  • Corruption with eunuchs as intermediaries
• Internal rebellion and Manchu assistance

Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)

• Emerged from Manchu assistance against rebels
• Last imperial dynasty
• Ethnically distinct (Manchurian)
• Governance:
  • Separate identity maintenance
  • Adopted Chinese language and culture
  • Legitimacy through honorary titles

Expansion

• Consolidation of control over nomadic regions (Mongolia, Tibet)
• Military conquest, not unification
• Governed through the Court of Colonial Affairs

Limited Western Interaction

• Initial Jesuit missionary activity
• Restrictive trade policies
• Frustration from European powers (e.g., British) leading to later conflicts (more on this later)

Future Exploration

• Return to Qing Dynasty in the context of British imperialism