This video is brought to you by Captivating History. There is something so uniquely fascinating about the Ancient Egyptians that has captivated historians, archaeologists, and the public for the last two hundred years…and it’s easy to see why. From the strange form of writing called hieroglyphics to the mysterious Sphinx and from the macabre mummies to the Great Pyramid, Ancient Egypt was an enigmatic land that attracted Ancient Roman leaders and their militaries to the Egyptian seaports and British Egyptologists to its dusty temples and tombs. Much of our understanding of ancient cultures can be attributed to the Ancient Egyptians who left us many texts and treasures, monuments and myths that offer us tantalizing clues about the exotic and wondrous culture of Ancient Egypt. Egypt is a very old land with civilizations dating to around 5500 BCE. Historians divide Ancient Egyptian history into thirds…and the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. In ancient times, the people of Egypt used the reigns of certain rulers as date markers, making it difficult for today’s archaeologists to definitively date structures and monuments. But the Egyptians kept a record of their kings, or pharaohs, that scholars deciphered once they unlocked the key to translating the writing system of the Ancient Egyptians. In ancient time and today, life in Egypt depends on the Nile River, the life-sustaining body of water that flows South to North, cutting through the inhospitable desert sands of the Sahara. The Nile is prone to seasonal flooding, which makes the land on either side of its shores rich and fertile, ideal for agriculture. It is a delicate balance, though. If the Nile floods too much, it can destroy farm fields and settlements. If it doesn’t flood, the crops could wither and die, causing famine and starvation. The rich land along the Nile first led nomadic people to put down permanent agricultural settlements in Ancient Egypt. As these settlements grew, trade and commerce began, class structures arose, and artists and craftsmen flourished. Interaction between the different settlements became more frequent as the people of Ancient Egypt moved closer to establishing a unified kingdom. The climate of Ancient Egypt was changing. Around 3600, the lands further away from the Nile were becoming drier and hotter, forcing more people to move to the banks of the Nile. The influx of people pushed the limits of the region’s food-producing capabilities. As neighboring communities competed for resources, leaders ordered the construction of walls and other defense tactics. Three main kingdoms formed, and they battled each other for food and trade goods, and for precious stones and gold. After years of competition, one kingdom rose as the most powerful of the three, and its ruler, King Narmer, put an end to the conflicts and united the three kingdoms in 2950, making him the first true ruler of Egypt and the founder of the first nation-state in history. Under King Narmer, Egypt gained its national identity. He established a governmental system, created icons of royalty, such as the crown, and ordered the construction of large and ornate buildings as a show of the importance of the royal family. During King Narmer’s reign or shortly after, a system of writing was developed in Ancient Egypt. The written language began as a form of record-keeping for commerce but quickly developed into a way for royal scribes to keep track of the names and titles of rulers, and their lineage and key events. Hieroglyphics allowed them to immortalize their kings in history. Egyptian kings, or pharaohs, were all-powerful in Egyptian society. Pharaohs were viewed as the earthly embodiment of Horus, the link between humans and the gods; therefore, when a ruler took the throne, he was immediately given divine status. He had a dual role of appeasing the gods and keeping his human subjects safe, productive, and healthy. Times of drought, disease, famine, or war, according to the Ancient Egyptians, did not happen by natural means, but because the gods were displeased with the pharaoh, and he was being punished. The priests of Ancient Egypt were second only to the pharaohs in power. Although they did not have a direct line of communication with the gods like the pharaohs, they were tasked with aiding the pharaoh in keeping the gods happy and the citizens thriving. Priests could become wealthy in Ancient Egypt, primarily through the gifts they were given by wealthy people who wanted to put in a good word with both the gods and the pharaoh. A discussion of Ancient Egypt would not be complete without addressing two of the biggest landmarks in Egypt: the Great Pyramid at Giza and the Sphinx. The Great Pyramid is also called the Pyramid of Khufu after the Fourth Dynasty pharaoh who ordered its construction. It is the oldest of the three pyramids in the Giza complex, and dates to around 2560 BCE. The structure remains a marvel of ancient engineering and construction. Thought to be a tomb, the Great Pyramid was the crowning achievement of Egypt’s pyramid builders who built 80 pyramids in all. Equally impressive and more mysterious is the Great Sphinx, also on the Giza Plateau. The enormous statue of the mythical creature who was half-human and half-lion is often attributed to the pharaoh Khafra, putting its construction at roughly 2494 BC. Some historians and archaeologists, however, theorize that the Sphinx may be much older. We do know that at various points in history, the Great Sphinx was nearly swallowed up by the desert sands. It was buried up to its neck by the shifting sands of the Sahara and had to be dug back out. The enigmatic Sphinx, along with the Great Pyramid of Giza, are symbols of Egypt recognized around the world. The pharaohs that reigned in the New Kingdom, between 1570 and 1070 BC, wielded more power and command that any rulers who preceded them. These were the rulers who extended Egypt’s landholdings, built ambitious temples and monuments, and established foreign diplomacy with surrounding nations. In the twenty years he ruled, Pharaoh Thutmose III built Egypt into a formidable empire through decisive military victories, which are chronicled in Karnak’s Hall of Annals. Another of Egypt’s New Kingdom pharaohs, Akhenaten, is best remembered for being the ruler who tried to change religious worship in Ancient Egypt. Before Akhenaten’s reign, Egyptians worshipped a pantheon of deities, in much the same way as the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Norse. Akhenaten, however, forced the citizens into monotheism with only one supreme god, a sun deity. The people of Ancient Egypt naturally balked at this sudden and radical shift in their religious practices, although few spoke out against their pharaoh. After his death, polytheism was restored, statues and monuments to Akhenaten were destroyed or dismantled, and his name was expunged from the record of kings. The beautiful Egyptian queen, Nefertiti, was married to Akhenaten, but not much else is known about her. Queens only ruled in partnership with their kings; however, historians believe that Nefertiti may have served as the sole ruler of her people after her husband’s death and before the boy pharaoh, Tutankhamun, began his reign. We may not know much about Nefertiti’s background, but we do know what she looked like. A bust of her likeness, believed to have been sculpted in 1345 B.C., was unearthed in an artist’s work by a German archaeologist in 1912. The bust of Nefertiti, often called the most beautiful woman who ever lived, is on display at a museum in Berlin. Upon the death of Akhenaten, there was no clear heir to assume the throne. The only appropriate person was Tutankhamun, a seven-year-old child. The boy pharaoh, as he later became known, became a household name after his treasure-laden, nearly intact tomb was discovered in the Valley of the Kings in 1922 by British archaeologist Howard Carter. Besides the priceless treasures, ornate sarcophagus, and mummified remains of the pharaoh, the tomb held back a curse – if the legends are to be believed – that caused the strange and unexpected deaths of Carter and several members of the archaeological team. The mystery of the curse, along with the trove of valuable artifacts made a fascinating story, leading to King Tut’s immense fame. The discovery of King Tut’s tomb and the worldwide attention it garnered put the Ancient Egyptians’ unique funeral and burial practices in the spotlight. In the mythology and religion of Ancient Egypt, the belief in the afterlife was of high importance. Pharaohs and nobles spent their lives preparing for their deaths and tried to ensure that they would enjoy a comfortable afterlife. A key component of this was the preservation of the corpse. The people of Ancient Egypt developed effective embalming and mummification techniques, including wrapping the deceased in strips of linen cloth, that took advantage of the dry desert climate to keep the body intact. The funeral rituals of the Ancient Egyptians guaranteed the deceased had a safe journey to the afterworld. Some pharaohs were buried with boats that could transport him to the great beyond. Servants and family members were also buried with the pharaoh so they could serve him in the afterlife. All the worldly objects he may need were also added to the tomb, including items of great value that may have favored the gods. The walls of tombs themselves were lined with prayers and spells meant to protect the dead. And the tombs were hidden and secured to tomb robbers could not find them and steal the precious artifacts inside. Toward the end of the Egyptian empire, Egypt was an integral part of the political and economic activities of the Mediterranean Sea. Roman and Greek leaders, scholars, and philosophers regularly interacted with Egyptians, which influenced the Egyptian culture. Some of the interactions became personally and politically entangled. Such was the case with Cleopatra, the daughter of Ptolemy XII. A weak and ineffective leader, Ptolemy XII often called on Rome for military and political support. Upon his death, the throne passed to Ptolemy XIII, who was just a child. Therefore, the elder Ptolemy’s daughter, Cleopatra, was married to the younger Ptolemy, and she took control of the country in the interim. When he grew older, the two rulers battled each other for control until Julius Caesar, and his army arrived in Alexandria to negotiate a truce between them. Struck by her beauty and charm, Caesar and Cleopatra became lovers, and he fathered her child. After Caesar’s murder, Cleopatra began a relationship with another prominent Roman, Mark Antony. The couple had three children together, but their relationship was torn apart by war. In a true-life “Romeo and Juliet” scenario, Cleopatra hid in a tomb and sent word to Mark Antony that she was dead. Upon hearing the news, the distraught Mark Antony tried to kill himself. As he lay dying, he was told of the mix-up, and that his lover was still alive. He ordered his men to take him to Cleopatra and he died as she held him in her arms. Devastated by losing her love, Cleopatra allowed an asp to bite her, and she, too, died. Thanks to stories like that of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, the cursed tomb of King Tut, the mysterious Sphinx, and the cryptic hieroglyphics, the culture of Ancient Egypt has inspired wonder and awe. From the desert sands of Northern Africa, a complex, mysterious, and fascinating civilization arose that is still the subject of study and research to this day. Unlike any other culture on Earth, the Egyptians accomplished amazing feats of engineering and pioneered the idea of national identity against the backdrop of the enigmatic pyramids. To discover more about Ancient Egypt, then check out our book, Ancient Egypt: A Captivating Guide to the Egyptian History, Ancient Pyramids, Temples, Egyptian Mythology, and Pharaohs such as Tutankhamun and Cleopatra. It’s available as an e-book, paperback and audiobook. Also, grab your free mythology bundle e-book for free while it is still available. 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