Unit 2 Summary: Cognition - AP Psychology

Introduction

• Presenter: Mr. Sin
• Purpose: Review concepts for AP Psychology Unit 2 on Cognition.
• Key Materials: Study guide and ultimate review packet available via video link.
• Key Tips: Take active notes; answer key available for double-checking.

Key Concepts in Cognition

Perception vs Sensation

• Sensation: Detection of a stimulus by sensory receptors; raw data.
• Perception: Interpretation of sensory information; involves processing.

Types of Processing

• Top-Down Processing:
  • Uses prior knowledge and experiences.
  • Efficient but can lead to errors (e.g., proofreader's illusion).
• Bottom-Up Processing:
  • Relies on stimuli when unfamiliar or complex.
  • Slower but builds perception from the ground up.

Schemas and Perceptual Sets

• Schemas: Mental frameworks built from past experiences.
• Perceptual Sets: Mental shortcuts influenced by expectations/emotions.

Influence on Perception

• Internal Factors: Mood, emotions, culture, expectations.
• External Factors: Environment, e.g., urban vs rural perceptions.
• Selective Attention: Focus on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.
  • Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on one voice in a noisy environment.
  • Inattentional Blindness: Missing stimuli due to divided attention.

Gestalt Principles

• Figure and Ground: Distinguishing object from background.
• Continuation: Natural following of continuous lines.
• Closure: Filling in missing parts to perceive a complete object.
• Similarity: Grouping similar objects as a unit.
• Proximity: Objects close together perceived as a group.
• Symmetry: Symmetrical objects perceived as one.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Require both eyes (e.g., convergence, retinal disparity).
• Monocular Cues: Require one eye (e.g., relative size, interposition).
• Perceptual Constancy: Consistency in perception despite changes (size, shape, color, lightness).

Cognition and Problem Solving

Cognitive Structures

• Concepts: Mental categories for organizing information.
• Prototypes: Typical examples of a concept.
• Schemas: Interpret and organize information; modified by assimilation (adding) and accommodation (altering).

Executive Functions

• Algorithms: Step-by-step problem-solving methods.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts for quick decisions.
  • Representative Heuristics: Judgments based on stereotypes.
  • Availability Heuristics: Judgments based on readily available memories.

Priming and Framing

• Priming: Influence of a stimulus on response to a later stimulus.
• Framing: How information presentation shapes interpretation.

Creativity

• Divergent Thinking: Exploring multiple possibilities.
• Convergent Thinking: Narrowing to a single solution.
• Components of Creativity: Expertise, imaginative skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment.

Cognitive Biases

• Gambler's Fallacy: Incorrect belief that past events influence future probabilities.
• Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing an action due to prior investments.

Memory

Types of Memory

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (episodic and semantic).
• Implicit Memory: Unconscious learning (procedural memory).
• Prospective Memory: Remembering future tasks.

Memory Models

• Working Memory Model: Visual-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop, central executive, episodic buffer.
• Multi-Store Model: Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory.
• Levels of Processing Model: Structural, phonemic, semantic processing.

Encoding and Storage

• Encoding: Process of storing information in memory.
  • Types: Visual, acoustic, tactile, organizational, elaborative, semantic.
• Memory Consolidation: Strengthening neural connections during sleep.

Retrieval

• Recall vs Recognition: Different methods of accessing stored information.
• Retrieval Cues: Context-dependent, mood-congruent, state-dependent.

Forgetting and Interference

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid decline initially, then levels off.
• Interference: Proactive (old affects new) and retroactive (new affects old).

Intelligence

Theories of Intelligence

• General Intelligence (G) vs Multiple Abilities.
• Fluid vs Crystallized Intelligence: Problem-solving vs accumulated knowledge.

Intelligence Testing

• IQ Tests: Standardized measures; influenced by external factors.
• Stereotype Threat/Lift: Impact of stereotypes on performance.
• Psychometric Principles: Standardization, reliability, validity.

Types of Academic Tests

• Achievement Tests: Assess knowledge at a point in time.
• Aptitude Tests: Predict future performance.

Conclusion

• Practice Quizzes: Available in the Ultimate Review Packet.
• Unit Preparation: Review key concepts and quizzes for better understanding.

"The more you practice and the more active you are in your learning, the easier it is for you to succeed." - Mr. Sin