Adoption and innovation of maritime technology were crucial for European expansion.
Adopted technologies like the magnetic compass (China), astrade (Greece and Arab world), and latine sail (Arab merchants) enabled Europeans to navigate the seas.
Innovations in shipbuilding, like the Portuguese Caravel, allowed for inland navigation and military advancements.
Political
Growth of state power and centralization of authority under European monarchs.
Monarchs played significant roles in economic decisions, seeking seabased routes to Asia for direct trade, bypassing expensive land-related costs.
Economic
Mercantilism: a state-driven economic system aiming for a favorable balance of trade by maximizing exports and minimizing imports.
Joint Stock Companies: Businesses funded by private investors with limited liability. Crucial for state-merchant partnerships in overseas expansion.
Notable example: Dutch East India Company (VOC), chartered in 1602.
European Achievements and Effects
Portugal's Early Leadership
First to establish a trading post empire in Africa and the Indian Ocean, using fast, cannon-equipped ships.
Spain's Conquest and Colonization
Sponsored Christopher Columbus, leading to the discovery of the Americas and establishment of trading posts and colonies.
France, England, and the Netherlands' Entry
France and England focused on establishing bases in America and India.
Dutch excelled in Indian Ocean trade, challenging Spanish and Portuguese dominance.
The Colombian Exchange
A transfer of diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western hemispheres.
Diseases: Smallpox, measles, and malaria devastated indigenous populations.
Foods: European settlers introduced wheat, olives, grapes, etc., while crops like maize and potatoes from the Americas positively impacted the Old World.
Resistance to European Expansion
Asian states, notably Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate, resisted by expelling Christian missionaries.
In Europe, events like the Fronde in France demonstrated resistance to state policies and absolutism.
Maroon societies in the Caribbean and Brazil, formed by runaway slaves, resisted European colonial control.
Expansion's Influence on Africa
African states like the Asante Empire and the Kingdom of the Congo grew through economic partnerships with Europeans.
Change and Continuity in Networks of Exchange
Despite European dominance, traditional trade networks in the Indian Ocean and Silk Roads continued to thrive.
Labor Systems
The introduction of chattel slavery marked a significant change in labor systems, especially in the Americas.
The transatlantic slave trade had profound social effects, including gender imbalances and cultural syntheses.
Belief Systems and Social Hierarchies
Conversion efforts by European missionaries led to religious syncretism.
New political elites and social hierarchies emerged, as seen in the casting system in Spanish colonies and the bureaucratic changes in the Ching dynasty.