Overview
This lecture explores the life of Zheng He, his rise under the Ming dynasty, and his leadership of seven major maritime expeditions that expanded China's influence across Asia, the Indian Ocean, and parts of Africa, before diplomatic voyages were ultimately banned.
Fall of the Yuan Dynasty and Rise of Ming
- In 1368, the Mongolian Yuan dynasty is overthrown by the Ming dynasty, led by the Hongwu Emperor.
- Some regions, such as Yunnan, resist Ming rule. Ma Sanbao (later known as Zheng He) is born around 1371 in Yunnan to a wealthy, noble Muslim family. His father is a respected general who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Early Life of Zheng He
- In 1381, Ming forces invade Yunnan to suppress remaining resistance. Ma Sanbao’s father is killed in battle, and Ma is captured.
- At age 13, Ma Sanbao is castrated and made a eunuch to prevent him from founding his own dynasty.
- He is sent to the court of Zhu Di, the fourth son of the emperor and Prince of Yan in the North.
- Ma Sanbao quickly distinguishes himself through his diplomatic and strategic skills, rising in rank and becoming a recognized military commander by age 20.
Political Upheaval and Rise of Zheng He
- In 1398, Emperor Hongwu dies. Since his eldest son is already deceased, his grandson Jianwen becomes emperor.
- A civil war erupts between Jianwen and Zhu Di. Zhu Di emerges victorious and becomes Emperor Yongle.
- Ma Sanbao plays a decisive role in Zhu Di’s victory, is promoted to Great Eunuch, and is given the new name Zheng He.
Yongle’s Reforms and Ambitions
- Emperor Yongle consolidates his power by moving the capital to Beijing and commissioning the construction of the Forbidden City.
- He gathers over 2,000 scholars to compile the Yongle Encyclopedia, which becomes the largest encyclopedia in the world for centuries.
- To enhance the prestige of his reign and establish diplomatic relations, Yongle orders Zheng He to organize and lead a series of maritime expeditions to the Western Ocean.
Zheng He’s Seven Maritime Expeditions
First Voyage (1405–1407)
- Zheng He supervises the construction of a massive fleet: about 250 ships, including around 60 enormous treasure ships with up to 9 masts, and a total crew of 27,800, mainly military personnel.
- The fleet departs on July 11, 1405, following established trade routes.
- The expedition visits the coasts of Champa (in present-day Vietnam), Java, Sumatra, and passes through the Strait of Malacca.
- The fleet reaches Ceylon (Sri Lanka), where the local king perceives the Ming fleet as a threat and is hostile to Zheng He.
- The voyage continues to Calicut, a major trading hub in India.
- On the return journey, Zheng He learns of a Chinese pirate who has seized Palembang and is attacking merchant ships. Zheng He defeats the pirate and restores order.
- The fleet returns to Nanjing on October 2, 1407. Zheng He reports his discoveries, including rare animals, to the emperor.
Second Voyage (1407–1409)
- A second expedition is launched soon after the first, following a similar route through Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.
- The fleet visits the kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand).
- It is uncertain whether Zheng He personally leads this voyage, but the mission continues the diplomatic and trade objectives of the first.
Third Voyage (1409–1411)
- Zheng He is confirmed as the commander of this expedition.
- The fleet again visits Ceylon, where the local king remains hostile to the Ming and their allies.
- Zheng He leads a military campaign, defeats the king, and installs a ruler favorable to the Ming.
- He erects a stele on the island, inscribed in Chinese, Persian, and Tamil, offering tribute to Buddha, Allah, and Vishnu, reflecting the diverse cultures encountered.
Fourth Voyage (1413–1415)
- Zheng He is tasked with expanding Chinese influence further and strengthening diplomatic ties.
- After reaching Calicut, the fleet continues to Hormuz, a major trading city filled with foreign merchants.
- On the return journey, Zheng He intervenes in Samudera (in Sumatra), supporting the local sultan against a rebel challenger to protect Ming interests.
- Emissaries from various states accompany Zheng He back to China, bringing gifts for the emperor, who reciprocates with paper money, copper coins, and silk.
Fifth Voyage (1417–1419)
- Zheng He is ordered to escort foreign emissaries back to their homelands.
- The fleet revisits Hormuz and then sails further along the Arabian Peninsula and the coast of Africa.
- Zheng He receives exotic animals such as giraffes, lions, and elephants, which he presents to the emperor upon his return.
Sixth Voyage (1421–1422)
- Zheng He embarks on another expedition of similar scope, continuing diplomatic and trade missions.
- While Zheng He is at sea, financial strain from the construction of Beijing, military campaigns against the Mongols, and the cost of the expeditions cause unrest in China.
- Emperor Yongle suspends further voyages due to these pressures.
Seventh Voyage (1431–1433)
- After Yongle’s death and a brief suspension under Emperor Hongxi, Emperor Xuande authorizes Zheng He to undertake a final voyage.
- Zheng He is also tasked with completing the Nanjing Porcelain Pagoda before departing.
- The fleet follows previous routes, with some members reaching Jeddah and traveling to Mecca.
- On the return journey in 1433, Zheng He dies at the age of 62.
- After his death, instability in China leads to a ban on further maritime expeditions and the construction of large ships. The imperial fleet is dismantled, and records of Zheng He’s voyages are destroyed or lost.
Decline of the Expeditions
- The high costs of the expeditions, combined with military threats from the Mongols and domestic unrest, lead to the suspension and eventual prohibition of further voyages after Yongle’s death in 1424.
- Emperor Xuande briefly revives the expeditions, but after Zheng He’s death in 1433, all major maritime exploration is banned, and related records are destroyed.
Later Recognition
- On July 11, 2005, 600 years after the departure of Zheng He’s first expedition, China designates July 11 as "maritime day" in his honor.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Ming Dynasty — The Chinese dynasty that replaced the Yuan and initiated large-scale maritime exploration.
- Eunuch — A castrated male servant, often entrusted with significant administrative and military roles in the Ming court.
- Treasure ships — Massive, multi-masted ships used in Zheng He’s expeditions, notable for their unprecedented size.
- Forbidden City — The imperial palace complex constructed in Beijing under Emperor Yongle.
- Yongle Encyclopedia — An extensive Chinese encyclopedia commissioned by Emperor Yongle, the largest in the world for centuries.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review the details and routes of Zheng He’s seven expeditions to understand their scope, achievements, and impact.
- Study the political changes in China from the Yuan to the Ming dynasty and their influence on foreign policy.
- Prepare to discuss the reasons behind the end of Chinese maritime exploration and the destruction of related records.