hey everyone this is dr. mark on and welcome to human anatomy we are going to get started with chapter 1 which is the human body and orientation so let's get started with some definitions so first anatomy anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body whereas physiology is the study of body function now notice usually anything that ends in ology means the study of so you'll see other words that end in ology and again that suffix means the study of now there are some sub disciplines of anatomy and we have gross anatomy which is what we are studying and we can further divide gross anatomy into regional anatomy and systemic anatomy we also have surface anatomy as well as microscopic Anatomy or histology histo tissue so ology the study of histamines tissues so the study of tissues we also have other branches of anatomy there's a developmental Anatomy embryology pathological Anatomy or pathology patho means disease so pathology meaning the study of disease we also have radiographic anatomy and functional morphology when we talk about terminology is specifically anatomical terminology it's usually based on ancient Greek or Latin and this helps provide the standard nomenclature worldwide so there is a hierarchy of structural organization first we start off at the chemical level so at the chemical level level atoms combined for molecules and molecules combine to form the macromolecules such as carbohydrates lipids proteins and nucleic acids so we can see that you know we know that anything organic is carbon-based so made up of atoms of carbon at the cellular level we have structures called cells so cells and their surroundings are made up of molecules so the cellular level is made up of these cells and their functional subunits at the tissue level so a group of cells make up tissues and tissues consists of similar types of cells and associated extracellular material next is the organ level organs are discrete structures made up of more than one tissue meaning that an organ is made up of multiple tissue types next we have the organ system level we have a bunch of organs working together for a common purpose so we know that an organ system is a unified group of organs and tissues that will perform a specific function examples of the of the different systems include the cardiovascular system or the respiratory system the digestive system so we have a bunch of different organs working together to perform a common goal and then a group of systems will then make up an organism so now we have the organismal level this is the result of all simpler levels working in unison and here is just a figure within your book in Chapter one showing the different levels and then the hierarchy of these different levels so we have the chemical level we can see that atoms make up molecules so in this example we have carbon we also have hydrogen a bunch of different atoms coming together to form a molecule in this case hemoglobin which is a tape type of protein and we know that protein is a specific type of macromolecule then we have this cellular level and then a group of cells make up tissues and then a group of specific tissues make up an organ and then we have the organ system level this is when we have a unified group of organs and tissues performing a specific function making up the organ system and finally the organism as a whole so the whole person is the most complex level of organization and this is the organismal level and its results from the simpler levels working interdependently so then we're going to get into the different systems first we'll talk about the integumentary system really quick just an overview we know that the integumentary system forms the external body covering so we're talking about the skin and different components of the skin so we know the skin is actually the largest organ the integumentary system protects deeper tissues from injury we know that the integumentary system is responsible for synthesizing vitamin D and also it is the site of our cutaneous receptors such as receptors for pain pressure as well as the site for our sweat and oil glands really quick next we have the skeletal system our bones so the skeletal system protects and support body organs it provides a framework for our muscles we know that our blood cells are formed within bones and also this is the site of mineral storage next system is the muscular system our muscles allows for the manipulation of the environment allows for movement or locomotion we have specific muscles for facial expression our muscles help us maintain posture and we also know that the muscular system produces heat a very generalized overview of the nervous system so the nervous system is a fast-acting control system it helps respond to both internal and external changes our endocrine system our endocrine system is made up of glands and glands secrete hormones that help regulate things such as growth reproduction as well as nutrient use the cardiovascular system and the structures within the cardiovascular cardiovascular system include the heart as well as the blood vessels we know the blood vessels will transport blood blood carries oxygen and carbon dioxide it also carries nutrients and wastes we know the heart is a specific type of muscle that pumps blood through blood vessels our lymphatic system as well as our immune system this system picks up fluid leaks from blood vessels it disposes of debris in the lymphatic system this is where we find our white blood cells also known as our lymphocytes lymphatic system as well as the immune system mounts attacks against foreign substances within the body the presbytery system the respiratory system keeps blood supplied with oxygen and we need oxygen to live it also removes products of Matata of metabolisms specifically carbon dioxide you know that gas exchange occurs through the walls of air sacs in the lungs digestive system the digestive system helps break down food into absorbable units we have our large macromolecules such as our lipids our proteins and our carbohydrates we have enzymes that break down these macromolecules so that we can form smaller units that they that can be absorbed and you know that anything that we don't digest so any indigestion foodstuffs will be eliminated as feces the urinary system you're an area system is very important because it helps us eliminate nitrogenous waste also helps regulate water electrolyte and acid-base balance the male and female reproductive systems so the overall function is of course to produce offspring we know that the testes produce sperm and male sex hormones such as testosterone whereas the ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones such as estrogen and we have mammary glands that produce milk so just a quick overview with regards to measurements we use the metric system to measure length volume and weights so the system of measurement in Namie of course is the metric system we go by meters micrometers this is for length and then for volume we have liters and milliliters and for weight we use kilograms and grams that's about it for the metric system for now alright so now we are going into gross anatomy and different regional and directional terms first we're going to discuss anatomical position anatomical position position is a common visual reference point this is when a person is standing up so the person stands erect with feet together usually about shoulder length apart eyes forward person will then have their palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from the body so that would be anatomical position tomorrow I want you guys to demonstrate for me I'm not tomorrow but during our first lab session I want you guys to demonstrate for me anatomical positions will be prepared to show me what anatomical position is so just some regional terms we have the axial region the axial region forms the axis of the body this includes the head the neck and the trunk we then have the appendicular region these form the appendages such as our upper limbs and our lower limbs now it's very important that you guys get comfortable with standard directional terms because these are used by professionals to describe location of one body part in relation to another and this next figure will show you what anatomical position looks like as well as the different regional terms so again we have the axial region we know that the axial region is formed by the head the neck and the trunk okay and then we have different terms within the axial region so for example within the head also known as cephalic region we have the frontal region so frontal where the frontal bone would be orbital where the eyes would be nasal we have oral where the mouth is mental and that is the lower part of the jaw or the mandible and then cervical region describes the region of the neck and then within the trunk we have the thoracic abdominal and pelvic regions okay and we can actually see that it is color coordinated so for example orange represents the thorax this is a purplish color represents the abdomen and then in the next slide we'll see the dorsum or the back portion of the trunk or the axial region okay and then be familiar with these terms within each region and then we have parts of the appendicular region so parts of the upper limb and the lower limb we know that the hand is part of the upper limb so here are some terms that help describe parts of the upper so for example the acromial part of the upper limb that is where we can find the acromial process when we get to bones that'll make a lot more sense the antecubital region this is sort of that elbow portion where we do a lot of our blood draws the Manas means hand so of course that is part of the hand their lower limb we have the femoral area this is where we can find the the femur a very important bone patellar region this is where the kneecap or the patella is located and then the pedal or foot area and then we have the different parts of the foot such as the tarsal or the ankle because we know that tarsal bone is actually located there so from this posterior or dorsal view we can see both the axial and appendicular region so axial still part of the trunk is the dorsal or back and then we have the different regions within the dorsal area and then we can see more of the appendicular regions of the upper limb the hand the lower limb and the foot so directional terms are used to explain precise location of body structure in relation to another body structure and usually these terms are paired with their opposite so for example we have the term superior superior if you actually look at superior it has the word up in it so superior means above or up whereas its opposite would be inferior or below and then we have an tear and tear usually means towards the front whereas posterior means towards the back medial medial means towards the midline of the body so imagine a line that will separate the body into right and left halves so medial means towards that midline of the body whereas lateral would be a away from that midline and then we have a superficial means towards the surface and then deep means away from the surface or deeper to the surface and this table actually gives the different terms as well as a really good explanation of the different terms so the first term again is superior or cranial towards the head so superior means towards the head or upper part of structure or the body or above for example the head is superior to the abdomen opposite of that is in fear another word for in fear is coddle coddle means towards the tail if we as humans had a tail or towards the bottom so inferior means away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure of the body also below so if for example intestines are inferior to the liver so here we see in the liver and inferior to that would be the intestines medial again medial is towards or at the midline of the body so imagine a line separating the body into equal right and left halves medial would be going towards that midline also it can mean on the inner side of so for example the heart is medial to the lungs okay so here is the heart meaning it's more towards the midline as opposed to in relation to the lungs here which are more lateral so the heart is more medial whereas the lungs would be more lateral so lateral means away from the midline of the body or on the outer side of so the thumb is lateral to the pinky okay so we know the pinky is actually more towards if we're in anatomical position is more towards the midline of the body whereas the thumb is away from that midline proximal proximal means closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk so for example the elbow is proximal compared to the wrists okay so we know that the upper limb attaches here at the shoulder so weak would consider the elbow closer to that attachment so closer or proximal more proximal to the shoulder compared to the wrist and if we were talking in anatomical terms we would consider the wrist more distal so distal is the opposite of proximal meaning farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk another example of this is the knee the knee is more distal compared to the thigh so we know that the lower limb attaches here at the hip the knee would be more distal compared to the thigh right here okay so other terms if see lateral epsy means on the same side so for example the right hand if we're looking at this person so this would be right this would be left the right hand is considered EPSA lateral with the right foot because they are on the same side so that is epsy lateral contra means opposite so contralateral would mean on the opposite side so the right hand and the left foot are considered contralateral okay so next term we have is anterior we know that anterior means toward or at the front of the body or in front of so if we can see the actual skeleton we know that the the sternum which is part of the ribcage the sternum is more anterior to the heart opposite of anterior so actually if we are looking through a transverse section of the chest so here is the heart and if this is anterior here is part of that stem which is more anterior compared to the heart so and here another name for anterior is ventral so ventral means towards the front or in front of opposite of veins here is posterior which means toward or at the back of the body or behind another word for poster is dorsal so think of the dorsal fin of a dolphin this is located on the back of the dolphin so an example of posterior the vertebra is posterior to the heart so if we're looking at this transverse section again here we see part of the spinal cord or the vertebra vertebra is singular vertebra is plural so the vertebra is posterior compared to the heart and we know that the sternum is and here or in front of the heart okay next term is superficial another word for superficial is external so this means it's toward or at the body surface so we know the skin is more superficial compared to these skeletal muscles so it's the outer covering an opposite of that is deep or internal so this means away from the body surface or more internal we know the lungs are deep to the skin so then we get into the different planes and sections of the body the first plane we're going to talk to or talk about is the frontal or coronal plane this plane lies vertically and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts so imagine a plane separating the front part of your body from the back part of your body so this isn't also known as the frontal or coronal plane so these two terms are synonymous the next plane is a transverse plane transverse plane runs horizontally and can divide the body into superior and inferior parts so imagine a magician the trick of most magicians is sawing someone in half so if we had a person being sawed in half and they are divided into upper and lower parts this would be within the transverse plane okay next plane is the sagittal plane so sad rail planes are vertical and divide the body into right and left parts now if we have a sagittal plane that will divide the body into equal right and left parts this is also known as the median or mid sagittal plane so this plan runs along the midline so that midline again being that line that separates the body into equal right and left parts or right and left halves okay whereas the parasagittal plane Paris agile is a satyr plane that will be offset from the midline so does not divide the body equally into your right and left halves but is actually off of that mid sagittal plane okay so here we can actually see the different planes of the body here we have that frontal plane which separates the body into superior arms our anterior and posterior or front and back parts then we have the transverse plane again imagine the magician sawing a person in half separating the body into superior and inferior parts and then we have the mid sagittal plane or median sections so the mid sagittal plane is that plane that will divide the body into equal right and left halves okay so if we look at some of these imaging studies we can see the different planes are the different cuts that are being performed so for example here we can see a frontal section so if we have a frontal section we can actually see parts of in this example the torso so we can see parts of the lungs the hearts here's the liver so that is within the frontal plane a mid sagittal plane we can see half of the body and can see the different organs as well as structures in when the body is cut through that mid sagittal plane transverse section again think of a magician sawing a person into upper and lower parts or superior inferior parts and we can see a transverse section if it's in the middle here we can see parts of the liver parts of pancreas may be some intestine you can see the spleen so the spleen would actually be on the left side so here we're looking at imagine we're looking from below this section so we're looking a transverse section but looking from below up and we can see that the swing is on the left and this is a large part of the right lobe of the liver so the the schematic or the human body plan is basically it's a tube within a tube the body exhibits bilateral symmetry we basically have a dorsal hollow nerve cord we also have nodal cord and vertebrae segmentation and foreign yield pouches this all occurs embryologically and most vertebrates have this basic body plan so for example we look at a fish and we have you know specific structures that are shared among all vertebrates so we have that inner tube we have a dorsal hollow nerve tube here which could be a rudimentary you know brain and spinal cord for this fish we have segmented outer tubes we have so we have a digested to we have for gel pouches here we can see your bra Dmitri hearts and the nodal cord and we actually can see this in a regular human embryo as well so have our inner tube which ends up becoming our a digestive system we have that nerve - that will eventually become our brain and spinal cord and then also other different structures that can be compared to other vertebrates so in this is an even embryo about five weeks post conception here we have an adult and we can see those structures and and the adult structures that are formed so from that dorsal hollow nerve - we have our central nervous system which includes our brain and spinal cord our inner tube making up the different parts of the digestive system segmented outer tubes here we can see muscle segments or muscles between ribs and we don't really see the notochord so the notochord embryologically is a stiffening rod in the back just deep to the spinal cord but adults the complete notochord will eventually become or be replaced by vertebrae and then some of the notochord does persist as the course of this or between the vertebrae or the intervertebral discs so the body is made up of different body cavities and membranes the first body cavity we talk about is the dorsal body cavity the dorsal body cavity is then made up of a cranial cavity as well as a vertebral cavity and we'll see pictures of this in just a little bit so opposite dorsal is ventral so ventral towards the fund the ventral body cavity is then made up of the thoracic cavity which was which will be divided into three parts we have two lateral parts each containing a lung surrounded by a pleural cavity and then we have the third which is the mediastinum the mediastinum will contain the heart surrounded by the pericardial sac also within the ventral body cavity we have the abdominal pelvic cavity and the abdominal pelvic cavity is divided in two parts we have the abdominal cavity which will contain the liver the stomach kidneys and other organs and then we have the pelvic cavity which contains the bladder some of the reproductive organs and the rectum so the next picture will show you the different body cavities so we have this dorsal cavity so again dorsal towards the back or posterior the dorsal body cavity will contain the cranial cavity which of course houses the brain and then the vertebral cavity which will contain the spinal cord okay we can see that the dorsal body cavity is indicated by the yellow areas then the ventral body cavity which is more anterior contains the thoracic cavity with three sub cavities we have two lateral cavities as well as the mediastinum again housing the heart and lungs and then we have this muscle right here which separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity this muscle is called the diaphragm and diaphragms of course very important especially as a muscle used for respiration so then we have our abdominal cavity actually it's the abdominal pelvic cavity which will then be divided into double cavity containing digestive viscera whenever you see the word viscera think organ so abdominal cavity actually contains digestive organs okay and then we have the pelvic cavity which will contain the urinary bladder or reproductive organs as well as the rectum here we just see a lateral view of the different cavities the dorsal and ventral cavity again dorsal being posterior ventral being anterior here we see an anterior view again we can mostly see the ventral body cavities but we can actually see parts of the dorsal body cavity is made up of the cranial and vertebral cavity so here we see thoracic cavity again having those cavities that contain the heart and lungs we have that muscle the diaphragm separating the thoracic cavity from the abdominal pelvic cavity and again abdominal cavity containing digestive organs pelvic cavity containing urinary bladder at reproductive organs and the rectum and all these red areas are part of the ventral body cavity or the body cavity that is more anterior to the body so serious cavities they are slit like spaces that are lined by a serious or serous membrane we have examples of these include the pleura the pericardium and the peritoneum now each of these Cedars cavities have basically the same structure we have a parietal serosa and a visceral serosa okay so imagine a balloon you have a balloon and imagine making a fist and punching that balloon okay or putting your fist within that balloon so as you are putting your fist in the balloon the balloon will kind of surround your fist now the layer of the balloon that is actually touching your fist this layer is known as the visceral layer in this case it's serosa so the visceral serosa is the part of the serious cavity or that lines that is adhere to the actual organ so viscera visual means organ so the visceral serosa the visceral layer is the layer that will be adhere to or closely attached to the organ you have a space and then you have that outer part of the balloon now this outer part or outer layer will actually make up the outer wall of the cavity and this is known as the parietal layer or the parietal serosa okay and again this makes up that outer wall or that outer layer that doesn't touch the actual organ but it's still on the outer part and then within that space between the two layers you have fluid called serous fluid seriously is produced by both layers of the serous membranes so the first serosa we're talking about the serosa associated with lungs they're called the pleura okay so here we have the lung or the organ and surrounded by the two layers of the serous membrane so the one layer that's closely attached to or adhere to the lungs that would be considered the visceral pleura or and then you have the space which is the which contains the the serous fluid or the pleural fluid and then you have that outer layer and that's the layer that lines the thoracic cavity and that is known as the parietal pleura okay and then that space is known as between the two layers is known as the pleural cavity and that's where we have serous fluid and this flue is very important because it actually allows the two layers to kind of slide past one another especially with the lungs because we know that the lungs expand when we bring air into the lungs and then they will retract when we blow air out of the lungs and movement between the two layers is possible because of that serous fluid within the pleural cavity so serious membrane-associated the heart or our cirrhosis ocean with heart is also known as the pericardium again we have the visceral pericardium that is the layer that is adhered closely to the actual hearts or see the actual organ and then you have this outer layer here that is the parietal pericardium and the space between the two layers is the pericardial cavity which contains serous fluid and then within the abdomen we have serosa associated with the abdominal organs this is called the peritoneum again the layer of the peritoneum that is adhered to the organs this is known as the visceral peritoneum we then have a peritoneum cavity containing that serious fluid and then we have the outer layer of the peritoneum which aligns the abdominal walls this is the parietal peritoneum okay so again I like to use this example of a balloon imagine your fist kind of going through or punching into a balloon and we have part of the blue and then is you know touching your fist this is actually comparable to visceral serosa or the layer that is you know adhering to your fist and then you have this outer layer which will line the cavity wall this is the parietal serosa and then you'll have that serious cavity where serous fluid will be located to allow for sliding of the two layers past one another now we can use quadrants to kind of divide specific areas within the abdomen quad means four so an abdominal quadrant will divide the abdomen into four areas okay so we have the right upper quadrants and the left upper quadrant we also have the right lower quadrant and the left lower quadrant now we use quadrants to help us get an idea of where we can locate specific structures specifically abdominal organs we know that for example the the appendix is located in the right lower quadrant so we'll use quadrants to help us locate different organs so here we see the right upper quadrant the left upper quadrants then we have the right lower quadrant and a left lower quadrants so here we can see the appendix coming off the cecum is located within the right lower quadrant okay we use abdominal regions so there are nine regions to actually help us specifically locate different organs and it's just a little bit smaller so a smaller area helps us locate specific very specific organs within the abdomen so the first part of our lab we are going to be using microscopes fortunately for you you don't have to go into lab and actually you know hold and touch a microscope actually it's not very fortunate it's better if you get hands-on experience with a microscope but anyways so microscopy is examing small structures through a microscope and we have different types of microscope we have a light microscope or light microscopy which illuminates tissue within with a beam of lights this occurs at a lower magnification and then we have electron microscopy which uses beams of electrons and we can see things any higher magnification so we can see three types of microscopy on this slide so we can see with a light micrograph at 190 X we can see the different cells here including you know this apical surface different cells and then the different structures within the cells just the nuclei and then if we use a transmission electron micrograph we can actually see these cells at a higher magnification and then at an even higher magnification we can use a scanning electron micrograph in order to see these structures we have to prepare the specimens and we have to prepare specifically human tissue for microscopy basically the specimen will be fixed or preserved and then sectioned off when I worked at Boston University School of Medicine I actually had to prepare slides of sections of brain which was kind of cool and got sliced brains for you know three years after slicing them and placing them on fixed slides we would then run them through different stains so we can see the different structures within the the tissue so a specimen is stained to distinguish anatomical structures we can use an acidic stain which uses negatively charged dye molecules or a basic stain which uses positively charged dye molecules now a scanning electron microscope or scanning electron microscopy basically we need to use a heavy metal salt stain which will then deflect electrons in the beam to different extents when you look at slides you may run into something called artifacts so artifacts are minor distortions of preserved tissues are not exactly like living tissues and organs sometimes if you know you don't use proper handling techniques you might find done star dirt or you know maybe a piece of like a string or or hair or yeah so that's why you should always you know wear gloves and take make sure you have proper PPE s when you are handling slides so when we are discussing clinical anatomy it is important to us different medical imaging techniques and this these are important because these are ways we visualize anatomy the first most common imaging technique we'll talk about is an x-ray an x-ray is basically electromagnetic waves of very short length and they're used best for visualizing bones as well as abnormal dense structures so here we can see on the left and x-ray or a radiograph of the chest we can see that the lungs are filled with air so they are going to look black have our denser structures such as bone will actually absorb the x-rays and then they will show up as radio opaque so a white color so we can see the the bones within the chest now if we use a contrast we can actually visualize structures a little bit better so contrasts such as barium we ask a patient to swallow barium or we introduce barium through the rectum these will also kind of absorb the x-rays and then we can see the internal structures a lot better with a barium contrast medium again here we can actually see the lower part of the gastrointestinal system we can see parts of the colon so on the right we can see the part of the cecum the a sending colon transverse colon descending colon the sigmoid calm down to the rectum which is pretty cool other x-ray techniques or advanced x-ray techniques we have CT or cat scan so this stands for a computed axial tomography this takes successive x-rays around a person's full circumference the computer will then translate the recorded information into a detailed picture of the body section so we have a patient going into the CT scan lying down usually and then it takes transverse cuts of the body so that we can visualize the different organs within the body so here specifically we can see part of the liver you can part see part of the different vessels we can even see a kidney here part of the thoracic vertebrae the spleen which would be on the left and then this is the aorta a very major blood vessel which transports oxygen your blood to the rest of the body another advanced x-ray technique is angiography or angiography angio means vessel so basically it's we are taking graphic representations or recordings of vessels so we contrast medium highlights vessel structures we use digital subtraction angiography or DSA so images will be taken before and after contrast medium is given to a patient and then the computer will subtract before from after to identify any blockage of arteries to the heart wall and brain and here we see a beautiful picture of DSA and you know if we look at so these are pictures of the coronary artery we can actually see a narrowing of an artery here and we know that this is arterial supply of the heart so if you have a narrowing that means there is less blood going to the different parts of the heart which could cause some damage other advanced x-ray techniques include PET scan or positron emission tomography this forms images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body we also have ultrasound or sonography this is ultrasound imaging the body will be probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that echo off the body's tissues you know that ultrasound is an imaging technique which we'll use be used to determine the age of a developing fetus the next slide shows pets can we use this to kind of follow a patient with regards to you know before and after treatment so here we can see the PET scan before treatment we see the different tumors that are visible here in the right breasts and then in here we can see one in the liver and then after treatment we can see that the tumors might have shrunk or are no longer visible then we have ultrasound of course which shows images of the fetus within the uterus and you can see the head right there in the body another advanced x-ray technique is an MRI or magnetic resonance imaging this produces high quality images of soft tissues helps distinguish body tissues based on relative water content and here we can see different MRIs you can see an MRI vani a sagittal section see the meniscus that structure between the distal portion of the femur and the proximal portion of the tibia and it will help us determine if there are any tears in the meniscus here we can see an MRI the head so you can see different images of the brain here's cerebellum so pretty cool so we help we use these imaging techniques to help see the different anatomical structures within our body and it's important to know the different types of imaging techniques that are out there okay so that is the end of chapter one and congratulations you have completed your first lecture