Overview
This lecture covers the history of ancient Rome, focusing on its rise, political structures, military strategies, integration of conquered peoples, the fall of the Republic, and its enduring influence on modern society.
Rome’s Military & Expansion
- Rome’s strength lay in its ability to continually raise new armies from Italian allies and half-citizens.
- Hannibal’s strategy to defeat Rome involved isolating them from their Italian allies.
- Hannibal invaded Italy, famously crossed the Alps, and used double envelopment at Cannae to kill 60,000 Romans in a single day.
- Rome ultimately prevailed by avoiding direct battle with Hannibal, targeting Carthaginian holdings elsewhere, and leveraging its manpower.
Roman Society & Culture
- Childhood mortality was high in the ancient world; most people were small family farmers.
- Romans were obsessed with tradition, ancestor worship, and maintaining the mos maiorum, “the way of the ancestors.”
- Class mobility was limited, with “novus homo” (“new man”) denoting the rare non-aristocrat to rise to high office.
Political Evolution: Monarchy, Republic, Empire
- Three periods: Monarchy (c. 753–509 BC), Republic (509–31 BC), Empire (31 BC–5th century AD).
- The Republic expanded Rome’s territory and incorporated conquered peoples through varied citizenship/allies status.
- Augustus (Octavian) became the first Emperor by consolidating power while maintaining the façade of republican institutions.
Greek and Etruscan Influences
- Rome absorbed much from Greek culture (art, philosophy) and Etruscan customs (e.g., gladiator games, religious practices).
- Roman competitiveness and openness to foreign ideas aided their expansion and integration efforts.
Law, Citizenship, and Slavery
- The Twelve Tables (451 BC) were Rome’s first law code, evolving into a comprehensive legal system.
- Roman citizenship offered privileges and obligations; “all citizens are equal before the law” (in theory).
- Slavery was widespread, not racially based, and had permeable boundaries; slaves could sometimes gain freedom.
Fall of the Republic & Rise of Empire
- Internal strife arose from uneven distribution of wealth and benefits of conquest.
- Ambitious generals like Marius, Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar undermined republican norms, leading to civil wars.
- Augustus solidified imperial rule via propaganda, modesty, and consolidating key powers without overt kingship.
Religion, Christianity, and Integration
- Traditional Roman religion was polytheistic and pragmatic; Christianity’s monotheism and egalitarianism conflicted with Roman social norms.
- The conversion of Constantine and later emperors to Christianity made it the state religion.
Gladiators, Entertainment, and Engineering
- Gladiatorial games were both popular entertainment and a display of Roman dominance.
- The Colosseum and other public works showcased advanced Roman engineering (concrete, arches, domes).
Decline and Fall
- Growing internal instability, economic troubles, and barbarian invasions weakened Rome.
- The Empire split into East and West, with the Western Empire commonly said to “fall” in AD 476.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Double Envelopment — Military tactic encircling the enemy on both sides.
- Mos Maiorum — The traditions/ways of the ancestors in Roman culture.
- Novus Homo — “New man”; first in a family to attain high Roman office.
- Twelve Tables — Earliest written Roman law code.
- Auxiliaries — Non-citizen troops in the Roman military who could earn citizenship.
- Gladiator — Combatant in public Roman games, often a slave or prisoner of war.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review the key periods of Roman history: Monarchy, Republic, and Empire.
- Study the Battle of Cannae and double envelopment strategy.
- Read about the transition from Republic to Empire and Augustus’s rule.
- Familiarize with Roman legal innovations and their influence on modern law.
- Prepare for a quiz on key terms and the timeline of Roman political changes.