Planet Earth: The Dynamic Evolution of Continents

Future Vision of Earth

Intergalactic explorers may find Earth unrecognizable:
- Giant landmass, huge mountain ranges, massive frozen snowfields, glaciers
- Ancient metropolises destroyed, remnants buried beneath rock

Colliding Continents: Key powerful force
- Endless cycle of construction and destruction over billions of years
- Landmasses arise and reform, climates alter drastically

Tectonic Plates Movement: Fundamental in shaping Earth's surface
- Earth's crust is divided into plates moving over the flexible mantle
- Plates can move several inches/year driven by convection currents
Mid-Ocean Ridge:
- Formation of new rock forms volcanic mountain ranges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
- Plates pull apart, creating new land
Subduction Zones:
- Oceanic crust dives into the mantle recycling Earth's surface
- Causes earthquakes, tsunamis

Formation of Earth: 4.5 billion years ago
- Dust and debris from Sun’s formation create Earth
- Earth bombarded by asteroids, causing tremendous heat
- Core separates with lighter elements forming continents
Birth of Granitic Continents: 4.4 billion years ago
- Formation of early crust, period of relentless bombardment
- Role of granite: Buoyant rock creating stable land masses
Cratons:
- Ancient stable landmasses
- Example: Kapvaal Craton in South Africa

Valbara: First supercontinent formation
- Formed around cratons of granite
- Eventually broke apart due to mantle plumes
Rodinia:
- Formed 1.1 billion years ago
- Eventually split apart to form smaller landmasses
Gondwana & Pangaea:
- Gondwana: Southern hemisphere supercontinent
- Pangaea: Last known supercontinent (~250 million years ago)
  - Climate extremes, contributed to Permo-Triassic mass extinction

Separation and Creation of Continents:
- South America splits from Africa, North America from Europe
- Australia heads north
- Formation of significant geographical features like the Alps, Himalayas, Grand Canyon

50 Million Years from Now:
- Atlantic Ocean widens
- Australia collides with Southeast Asia
- Africa heads north forming Mediterranean Mountains
100 Million Years from Now:
- Subduction zone forms in the Atlantic Ocean consuming it
- Europe and Africa move toward the Americas
250 Million Years from Now:
- Formation of Pangea Ultima
- Extreme climates leading to potential extinction events

Continental Movements Cause:
- Earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions
- Potential destruction of cities and civilizations
Speculative Future:
- Human displacement or extinction due to harsh climate
- Potential search for new habitats beyond Earth