Lifespan Development Psychology Psyc 2100 Lecture Block 13: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood Some of the challenges of early adulthood include leaving home, finishing education, getting a full-time job, becoming economically independent, finding a sexual and emotional soulmate, and having children. The progression has slowed and most young adults in the US do not feel they are truly adult until they have reached their late 20�s or early thirties. (Arnett, 03) Before this, there is a limbo period between adolescence and early adulthood called emerging adulthood in which there is a prolonged exploration period before full adult responsibilities are accepted. Cultural reasons include the requirements of more education for entry into many fields and no demanding need for the labor of this transition group in a developed country with older populations marketable. Also, treading water aimlessly between jobs are the lower SES young adults with little education, early parenthood, and failed relationships. By the time a person is in his/her 20�s, body structures have reached maximum capacity in strength, endurance, sensory capability and immune responsiveness. Then begins the decline known as senescence or biological aging. Physical changes are gradual and go mostly unnoticed in the 20�s and 30�s. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> At the cellular level, biological aging relies on specific genes genetically programmed to age and random environmental effects that accumulate to damage cells. Chromosomes with repeated cell duplications have their DNA ends called telomeres shortened until not enough is left to duplicate. This contributes to loss of function. (Nakashima et al,04) Cellular mutations from DNA breaks and cell material deletion occur in response to random environmental damage over time like radiation, pollutants and drugs. (Wei & Lee, 02) Both age-related DNA and cellular mutations are thought to be caused by free radicals. Free radicals are loose electrons that occur naturally. They are highly reactive and need the presence of oxygen to form. Oxygen molecules lose free radicals when they break down within the cells. These free radicals seek to hook up elsewhere and can damage nearby DNA, proteins and fats needed for proper cellular functioning. Substances to neutralize the free radicals work partially but the adverse effects are cumulative. Free radicals have been implicated in over 60 disorders associated with aging�including neurological disorders, cardiovascular disorders, arthritis, cancer and cataracts. (Poon et al,04) Genes for longevity may work their magic by fighting against free radicals. The fight against free radicals is also assisted by foods rich in vitamins C and E and beta-carotene. (Harman, 03) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Now let�s look at biological aging at the organ and tissue level. Connective protein fibers are generally separate fibers forming links and bonds between tissues. With aging, the fibers lose their elasticity as they cross-link. Skin will not be as flexible and there may be clouding of the lens in the eye. There may be clogging of arteries and kidney damage. Regular exercise and a low-fat diet with vitamin enrichment can help decrease the adverse effects of cross-linking. Besides cross-linking, the endocrine system stops performing optimally with age. The endocrine system produces and regulates hormones. With a gradual reduction in growth hormone (GH), comes muscle and bone density loss, along with an increase of body fat, skin thinning and cardiovascular decline. Diet and exercise are the 2 best ways to slow the effects of biological aging. In addition to cross-linking and weakening of the endocrine system in biological aging, there are also immune system deficits that occur. These complications with the immune system are responsible for greater vulnerability to cancer, to infectious disease and to the blood vessel wall changes of cardiovascular disease. Immune system deficits are governed by genetics but are intensified with endocrine system changes. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Physical changes that accompany biological aging include cardiovascular, respiratory, motor performance, and immune system. The first physical change accompanying biological aging is cardiovascular. With age, blood flow gradually decreases due to plaque build-up from cholesterol and fat, and stiffer artery walls in the heart. The aging heart performs normally and meets the oxygen needs of the body except when stressed under exertion. The second physical change accompanying biological aging is respiratory. With age, lung capacity declines and breathing rate increases. Since less than half of the air that can be forced in and out (called the maximum vital capacity) is needed for normal activity, the reduced vital capacity is not noticed except during physical exertion. Approximately 10% of max lung capacity is lost for every 10 years after age 25 years. (Mahanran et al,99). With age-related stiffening of connective tissues in the lungs, ribs and chest muscles, the lungs have a harder time expanding to full volume. The third physical change accompanying biological aging is motor performance. Declining athletic performance is due less to biological aging than to less practice and less demanding lifestyle. Peaks in speed and performance are reached in the early 20�s for athletic skills requiring fast limb movements, explosive strength, and gross motor feats like found in jumping, sprinting and tennis. In the late 20�s and early 30�s peaks in speed and performance are reached for athletic skills requiring endurance, aiming and steady hands like for baseball, golf and long-distance running. (Tanaka & Seals, 97) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> The fourth physical change accompanying biological aging is the immune system. The immune system is our surveillance system. It discovers, warns and fights against invaders called antigens like bacteria, viruses, chemicals, pollen, and tumor cells.>>>>>> Fighting off infection or antigens gradually declines with age. The 2 major players in the fight against these foreign invaders are T cells and B cells. These are specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes. manufactured in bone marrow. The thymus (small gland in the upper chest), spleen and lymph nodes house or store these lymphocytes allowing them to continue development. To do their jobs, T and B cells produce proteins called antibodies to destroy specific antigens. T cells are better at destroying antigens inside cells. (HIV attacks T cells and weakens the immune system.) B cells destroy specific antigens in the bloodstream and fluid surrounding body tissues (Paul,93). Antibodies secreted by the B cells are found in tears, saliva and in the mucous lining of the gastrointestinal tract, vagina, nose, and bronchial tubes. The job of these antibodies is to prevent viruses and bacteria from setting up shop in mucosal tissues. After age 20 years, the thymus gland begins shrinking until hardly noticeable at age 50. The capability to allow T cells to mature decreases. With fewer T cells around, B cells do not perform optimally by releasing fewer antibodies. In addition to the thymus shrinking, the immune response is hampered by psychological and physical stressors. The immune system interacts with the nervous and endocrine systems in the stress response. Stress weakens the immune response and makes the person more vulnerable to disease. Physical stressors are pollution, faulty nutrition, sleep deprivation and allergies. Psychological stressors include divorce, exams, depression and anxiety. >>>>>>>>>>>>>> Health and fitness figure prominently in biological aging. 65% of Americans are overweight and/or obese�higher percentage than any other country. Lifestyles are less exerting with more labor-saving devices but the consumption of high fat and sugar calories has increased. Lots of health risks accompany excess weight�high blood pressure, stroke, atherosclerosis, diabetes, arthritis, liver disease, gallbladder disease, digestive problems, sleep disorders, cancer. Social discrimination and mistreatment are additional sufferings. Behavior change is most crucial in successful treatment of obesity. Diet and exercise are not enough if everyday behavior patterns are not changed. A well-balanced diet, low in fat and calories, is necessary in combating obesity. Too much fat and red meat consumption is implicated in breast and colon cancers. Some fat is needed for normal functioning but when there is excess, especially saturated or solid at room temperature fat, some is converted into cholesterol and the plaque that clogs arterial walls. To establish a well-balanced diet, accurately record everything ingested. Seek social support from friends and relatives--a big help. Learn strategies in dealing with temptation. Self-discipline is needed to delay gratification and to substitute other foods or habits. Regular exercise is needed in combating obesity. Regular exercise has so many health benefits. It produces chemical byproducts to help counteract and eliminate bad cholesterol (LDLs) and increase good cholesterol (HDLs). It reduces body fat and builds muscle. It promotes resistance to disease by enhancing the immune response, reducing the vulnerability to colds and flu, and reducing recovery time needed when illness does occur. Exercise helps by enabling alteration of other risky behaviors like habits of alcohol and smoking. It reduces stress, anxiety and depression. It improves mood, alertness and energy levels. Regular exercise does far more than combat obesity. Maintain newly established diet and exercise habits so that they become part of your daily behavior patterns. Unless these new diet and exercise habits become ingrained as part of everyday behavior, weight will continually yo-yo and health and fitness will be sacrificed while biological aging is given a boost. >>>>>>>>>>>>> Another factor in biological aging is substance abuse. Substance/drug abuse is intentionally continuing a substance after work, education or relationships have been negatively affected (APA�94). Long-term health risks of substance abuse are cancer, heart disease, kidney damage and liver damage, plus a host of other physical and psychological problems and social impairments. Drug or substance abuse is not normative experimentation. It involves frequent and excessive use, and not just in social situations. Substance abuse involves physical and/or psychological dependence on a drug. Let�s visit the 2 most common substances abused which also happen to be legal--nicotine and alcohol. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Nicotine is a natural stimulant found in tobacco. It is such a potent drug that it is called �suicide in slow motion�. There is more risk in becoming dependent on nicotine than on alcohol, cocaine or heroine. Some facts on nicotine-- --Withdrawal symptoms of craving, shaking, feeling physically ill, once smoking is stopped, may last 2 to 6 weeks. --In large doses, nicotine acts like a depressant. --A burning cigarette releases more than 6800 different chemicals, many of which are cancer-causing. --97% of male deaths from lung cancer are linked to smoking. --74% of female deaths from lung cancer are linked to smoking. --1/3 of all cancer deaths are linked to smoking. >>>>>>>>>>>>> More smoking facts: Every cigarette reduces the smoker�s life expectancy by 7 minutes. Smoking is touted as the #1 cause of deaths in the U.S. --- more than the combined rates of death from alcohol, drugs, car accidents, and AIDS. Smokeless tobacco users have a 4 to 6 times greater risk of oral cancer. Daily exposure to 2nd-hand smoke at home causes a 24 to 39% risk increase in cancer for the non-smoker. Children of smokers suffer more than children of non-smokers from asthma, bronchitis, ear infections and colds. Smoking accelerates retina deterioration, premature wrinkling, poor wound healing, hair loss, bone density loss, earlier menopause, increase in sexual impotency (Amer Society for Reproductive Medicine, 04; Freiman et al,04; Thornton et al, 05), increased risks of heart attacks, stroke, leukemia, melanoma, cancer of mouth, throat, larynx, lungs, esophagus, pancreas, stomach, bladder and kidneys. 1 of every 3 regular smokers will die from a smoking-related disease. (US Dept of Health and Human Service, 05a) Most adult smokers began their habit before age 21 years. Quitting returns the smoker to non-smoker levels in 3 to 8 years. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Treatment of nicotine abuse are varied. Treatment with substitute forms of nicotine found in patches, inhalers and gum has been shown somewhat effective in reducing cigarette smoking. But for smoking to be stopped long-range, other treatment is needed like teaching coping skills and emotion regulation so that nicotine is not used as an anxiety reducer. Change environmental signals like remove all ashtrays, avoid bars and friends who smoke, have a similar-sized square container of water in pocket instead of cigarette pack, have a pen in hand for fingers to hold instead of a cigarette. Scheduled smoking tactics have a good bit of success. This technique gradually decreases the number of cigarettes smoked daily, but also dictates when those cigarettes may be smoked. The schedule is strict and time-dependent, not mood dependent or situation dependent. Those most likely to beat nicotine addiction are older, better educated and have health complications which force the issue. Good quotes, --- �Smoking is the only industry in America that will have killed 3 million of its best customers betw 1964 and the year 2000...�(US Dept of Health and Human Services). �Having a smoking section in a restaurant, is like having a peeing section in a swimming pool.� Let�s turn now from nicotine to alcohol. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Alcohol is the intoxicating element in liquor; extremely potent; primarily acts as a depressant or downer or substance that decreases activ in the body and nervous system. In low doses alcohol can act as a stimulant. Alcohol 1st reduces anxiety and then induces it as the effects wear off motivating the alcoholic to drink more to stave off the anxiety. At first a person may be more talkative and socially comfortable, but becomes sleepy and may even become comatose with enough alcohol. In high enough doses, alcohol can kill muscle tissue and brain cells. Over time, this leads to confusion, impaired memory, inability to learn and not caring. (Brun & Andersson,01) Alcohol can also reduce inhibition, interfere with judgment, impair driving, decrease intellectual functioning and control of behavior. Intensity of symptoms depends on metabolism, body weight, and amount of alcohol. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Who are alcohol abusers? 20 million Americans are problem drinkers. 1/3 of heavy drinkers suffer from alcoholism. Genetics appears to predispose some to develop alcoholism. Approximately two out five college students are binge drinkers. Students more likely to binge drink are white, age 23 or younger, and are residents of a fraternity or sorority. Women are at higher risk than are men for serious medical conditions associated with alcohol use. Women absorb and metabolize alcohol differently than men. They get drunk from less alcohol than men do due to faster absorption and slower metabolism. Because they have less body water and achieve higher concentrations of alcohol in their blood after drinking the same amount as men, women are more likely to develop liver damage and to die from cirrhosis, and are more vulnerable to alcohol-induced brain damage and heart damage. In addition, research studies show that moderate to heavy alcohol consumption increases the risk for breast cancer, osteoporosis and depression. Women who abuse alcohol are more apt to suffer social rejection and stigma than men who drink comparable amounts (Gomberg,93). When alcohol is involved, womens' risk of becoming victims of violent crime increases. Half of all sexual assaults happen under intoxication. (Abbey et al,04; Kalof,00) (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Alcohol Alert, No. 46, "Are Women More Vulnerable to Alcohol's Effects?," 1999; Wechsler H., Lee J. Kuo M., and Lee, H., Harvard School of Public Health, 1999) More alcohol facts-- -1 out of 4 male college students is a heavy drinker (Olmstead,84); -Consumption of alcohol is the 3rd leading cause of death in the US. -40% of traffic fatalities involve drivers under the influence of alcohol. (Mayhew et al, 05; Subramanian,05) -25,000 are killed in drunk driving accidents each year, and 1 ? million are injured. -Over half of police cases in large cities deal with crimes involving alcohol. (McKim,02) -Morning drinks are dangerous signs of alcohol dependence. -Alcohol content is the same in 1 oz. shot of 80-proof whiskey, 4 oz. wine, and 12 oz. of beer. >>>>>>>>>>>>> Treatment for alcohol abuse-- Withdrawing from alcohol addiction, called detoxification is not at all easy. For alcoholics who also suffer from other mental problems and who do not have a network of support, hospitalization may be required. There are self-help groups like Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Rational Recovery which are used to help victims of alcoholism. AA and its famous �12-step program� stress spirituality and God. The Rational Recovery program stresses a reliance on a stronger self, instead. Family therapy may also be recommended in treating a person with alcoholism. Contingency-management therapy seems to be a very effective, inexpensive way to treat people addicted to alcohol. There are positive rewards earned for avoiding alcohol. There is also training to avoid drinking scenes and to make new friends who do not need alcohol to have fun. For some, but certainly not all, victims, controlled drinking may work (Sobell & Sobell,93). Moderation is the key. Antabuse causes horrible vomiting if alcohol is taken with it. Because of the high drop-out rate, Antabuse is not considered effective. Acamprosate is a drug that may effectively decrease alcohol craving. It was recently approved by the FDA in 2004 and has been widely used for years in Europe. Opiate-anatagonists also decrease alcohol craving by blocking alcohol-stimulated endorphins. They work much better if used along with cognitive behavioral treatment. >>>>>>>>>>>>> Sexual development revisited. Lasting sexual relationships involve love, affection and fidelity�not just mechanics and technique. (Bancroft,02; Michael et al,94) Whether straight or gay, people seek others similar to selves in background and education. Most people spend most of their adult lives with 1 sexual partner at a time. Rape is more a problem of aggression and violence than it is of sex. Rape is the forcing of penis, fingers, or objects into the orifices of an unwilling partner. Rape does considerable harm to its victims who should receive individual and group treatment to help overcome the severe trauma, isolation and self-blame. Initially, victims suffer shock, withdrawal, numbing and confusion. These may become disturbances in sleep, constant fatigue, depression and thoughts of suicide. (Stein et al,04) Victims who had good coping skills before forcible rape are the most likely to recover. Rape victims are more likely to resort to unhealthy behaviors like smoking, alcohol and drugs. (McFarlane et al,05) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Cognitive development revisited� Though Piaget�s stages ran out with formal operational, the period of cognitive development that follows is called postformal thought. In adulthood there are levels of cognition that are more complex than the formal operational thought found in adol. We become even more aware of the diversity of opinions as well as more tolerant of them. Wisdom is a level of cognition that some but not all people reach. Wisdom is expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life. The young adult replaces hypothetical thought with pragmatic thought. A specific career is chosen and the young adult develops more cognitive-affective complexity. Problem solving skills and creativity are enhanced. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> William Perry�s theory (1981, 1970-98) of epistemic cognition has young, college-educated adults moving from dividing information into categories of right or wrong (called dualistic thinking) to awareness of multiple truths (called relativistic thinking). Dualistic thinking decreases and relativistic thinking increases in young adulthood. Instead of we, they�right, wrong�good, bad�there is awareness that there are multiple views that can be just as truthful. Absolute truth is replaced with relative truth depending on context. Adult thinkers consider a wealth of diverse opinions and are more tolerant, accepting and flexible with thoughts that differ. Relativistic thinkers understand and appreciate that truth is individualistic and each person creates his or her own truth out of several possibilities. Some adults even develop beyond relativistic thinking and progress to commitment within relativistic thinking which synthesizes contradictions. They move beyond everything as a matter of personal opinion, choosing the best among opposing views. Instead, they attempt to create a perspective that encompasses the opposing views and synthesizes or melds them into a palatable, viable new view. To advance their own knowledge, adults who have reached commitment within relativistic thinking, actually seek out opposing viewpoints in order to refine and make their present view more sophisticated. With the help of peers, young adults learn through experiences to see the rationality of their thinking. They gain in metacognition or ability to think about thinking. Through collaboration with others, collective rationality is used to justify own patterns of thought and to reflect on the patterns of thought of others. The result is a more effective strategy to solve the problem at hand. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Gisella Labouvie-Vief�s theory (1980, 85) suggests that young adults become more pragmatic and able to use logic as a tool to solve real problems. They leave behind the ideal world with its endless possibilities and grapple more with reality. These young adults polish their capabilities of reflection and enhance cognitive-affective complexity�coordinating good and bad feelings into an organized whole. They realize that part of life includes inconsistencies, compromise and imperfections. They search for ways to capitalize on them rather than deny them�to balance conflicting roles and demands rather than to ignore one or the other---to put something on the back burner if reality demands it. But not to abandon, only delay until the timing is more workable. Cognitive-affective complexity includes perspective-taking and awareness of the motivation of others as well as self. Those highest in cognitive-affective complexity are capable of tolerance and are open-minded. They effectively regulate their own intense emotions and are able to rationally deal with real-world dilemmas. Expertise is gained with practice and specialization. Gaining extensive knowledge in a specific area takes years to master. The expert has superior memory and problem-solving skills honed from practice. Instead of trial and error, the expert meets challenges by selecting the best of many available solutions and planning ahead. Expertise promotes creativity but creativity is multi-faceted. Creativity also requires innovation, experimentation, comfort with ambiguity, and persistence in the face of failure. Creativity commands investment of time and energy. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Creativity flourishes in periods of flow, a concept proposed by Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi pronounced �Chick-SENT-me-high� (1988). Flow allows for making the most of moment-to-moment experiences, and focuses on optimal experience. Flow requires tremendous concentration on an enjoyable activity with no distractions, where time slips by so quickly and you lose track of it. Flow requires finding something challenging, worthwhile, and enjoyable, with which you are also able to become accomplished. Experiencing flow will elevate mood and is the best state of existence. Challenges and capabilities are well-balanced during the experience of flow. Television prevents flow because you are not actively involved. Flow makes someone bad company because he/she is so in tune with reading a book, playing a computer game, painting a picture, dancing playing ball, building, performing surgery, teaching, etc., that there is no time for social interaction with someone else. >>>>>>>>>>>> Vocational choice figures prominently in cognitive development. It develops through 3 periods: fantasy, tentative and realistic. In the fantasy period, a child grapples with vocation via play in early and middle childhood. Glamour and excitement entice them to consider being a movie star, an athlete, a firefighter or a police officer. Familiarity may also entice them to consider whatever vocations the parents have, like plumber, teacher or doctor. In the tentative period, an 11 to 16 year old considers options that fit his/her interests and abilities. In the realistic period, a late teen/early adult narrows the choices to fit practical considerations. He/she explores, crystallizes and experiments until a choice is made. >>>>>>>>>>>>>> Personality figures into the vocational choices made. John Holland, in his personality type theory, (85) emphasizes the role of personality traits, interests, and values in the determination of a vocation or career. Adolescents attempt to match personality with a job that complements personality. They take a personality inventory which results in a vocational profile. Armed with which personality traits are dominant, an adol can then match a vocation that best employs them. Using Holland�s personality type theory�an individual�s career choice should be matched with his/her personality. This allows for greater job satisfaction and greater chance that a person will stick with a selected job. The 6 basic personality types that need to be considered before matching self with a career are�