Psychology Overview and Schools

Overview

This lecture introduces psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It traces the history of psychology, highlights major schools of thought, and discusses influential figures who shaped the field. The notes also include definitions and examples of key terms and concepts relevant to psychology.

What is Psychology?

Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes.
The term 'psychology' comes from the Latin for "study of the soul," though its meaning has evolved.
Humans have always been curious about their own minds, consciousness, and self-awareness, such as wondering about strange dreams or why we say things we regret.
The mind is considered the most complex object known to humans, aside from other human minds.
The rules that govern the mind are mysterious and not fully understood, but psychology seeks answers through scientific inquiry.

Early History and Big Questions

Ancient thinkers like Aristotle speculated about consciousness, mistakenly believing it was located in the heart.
About 2,000 years ago, Chinese rulers conducted the first psychological exams, requiring public officials to take personality and intelligence tests.
In the late 800s, Persian doctor Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Rhazes (Rhazes) described and treated mental illness, establishing an early psychiatric ward in Baghdad.
Psychology has long explored fundamental questions, such as:
- Why do humans commit acts like genocide or torture, and why do we recognize these as wrong?
- Do we have free will, or are we shaped by environment, biology, and unconscious influences?
- What is mental illness, and how can it be treated?
- What is consciousness and the self? For example, if someone loses self-awareness, are they still considered human?
These questions continue to drive research and debate in psychology.

Major Schools of Thought

Structuralism: Founded by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, this school aimed to break down conscious experience into basic elements using introspection. For example, patients described their sensations when watching a sunset or smelling coffee. Structuralism was short-lived due to the subjectivity of introspection.
Functionalism: Led by William James, this approach focused on the functions of thoughts and behaviors, emphasizing how they help individuals adapt to their environments. For example, James explored why we feel fear or curiosity, influenced by Darwin’s ideas about adaptive behaviors.
Psychoanalysis: Developed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis emphasized the influence of unconscious motives on personality and behavior. Freud introduced techniques like free association (encouraging patients to say whatever comes to mind) and dream analysis. For example, Freud’s work with Anna O showed that talking about traumatic memories could reduce symptoms. Psychoanalysis proposed that mental disorders could be treated through talk therapy.
Behaviorism: Prominent figures like Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner focused on observable and measurable behavior. For example, Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell, and Skinner used the Skinner box to train rats and pigeons to perform tasks for rewards. Watson used manipulations to study and control behavior, such as conditioning fear in children. Behaviorism dominated psychology into the 1960s.
Gestalt Psychology: This school, originating in Germany, emphasized that the mind perceives objects as whole patterns rather than as separate parts. For example, we see a face rather than just a collection of eyes, nose, and mouth. Gestalt psychology introduced concepts like article blindness (failing to notice individual elements when focusing on the whole).
Humanistic Psychology: Focused on personal growth and self-actualization, this approach emphasizes helping people reach their full potential. Carl Rogers introduced the concept of 'unconditional positive regard,' meaning accepting and supporting a person regardless of what they say or do.
Cognitive Science and Neuroscience: These fields explore mental processes and the biological basis of behavior, such as how memory works or how the brain processes information.
Developmental Psychology: The study of how people grow and change throughout life, from infancy to old age. For example, developmental psychology examines how children develop object permanence—the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not seen.

Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis

Freud began as a medical doctor treating nervous disorders, later developing psychoanalysis after witnessing the effectiveness of the "talking cure" with patient Anna O. Her symptoms improved as she talked about her experiences and memories.
He encouraged patients to speak freely, using free association to uncover unconscious motives and repressed feelings.
Freud’s theory proposed that much of human behavior is driven by unconscious processes, a radical idea at the time. For instance, he suggested that people might act out of motives they are not aware of.
He believed that understanding the unconscious could lead to healing through self-insight and talk therapy.
Freud published over 20 books, including "The Interpretation of Dreams," where he argued that dreams reveal unconscious desires.
Despite controversy and opposition, Freud remained influential. His later life was marked by illness (jaw cancer from cigar smoking) and escape from Nazi-occupied Austria; he died in England in 1939.
Psychoanalysis remains an important concept and practice in psychology, even as other theories have emerged.

Psychology Today

Modern psychology integrates ideas from multiple schools of thought, combining the study of observable behavior with the investigation of mental processes. For example, psychologists might study both how people act in public and what they think or feel privately.
The field uses a variety of methods to address the complexity of the human mind, recognizing that no single approach is sufficient. Researchers might use experiments, surveys, or brain imaging.
Psychology is described as an integrative science, drawing on diverse perspectives to ask and answer questions about behavior, thought, and emotion.
The discipline values both data from observation (such as watching how people interact) and insights into internal experiences (such as asking people about their feelings), aiming to deepen understanding of individuals and society.
The human brain is acknowledged as the most complex physical object known, making the study of psychology both challenging and essential.

Key Terms & Definitions

Psychology: The science of behavior and mental processes.
Structuralism: Early school focused on breaking down mental processes into basic elements through introspection (e.g., describing sensations when smelling coffee).
Functionalism: Approach emphasizing the purpose and adaptive functions of consciousness and behavior (e.g., why we feel fear).
Psychoanalysis: Freud’s theory and therapeutic method centered on unconscious motives and talk therapy (e.g., free association, dream analysis).
Behaviorism: School focused on studying observable and measurable behavior (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs, Skinner’s rats).
Skinner Box: A controlled environment created by B. F. Skinner to study animal behavior, where animals like rats or pigeons are conditioned to perform tasks (like pressing a lever) for rewards.
Watson Manipulator: Refers to John B. Watson’s experimental techniques to manipulate and control behavior, such as conditioning emotional responses in children.
Isolate: In psychology, to separate a subject from others or from certain stimuli, often to study the effects of isolation on behavior or development.
Gestalt Psychology: School of thought emphasizing that the mind perceives objects as whole patterns rather than as separate parts (e.g., seeing a face instead of just features).
Gestaltlaten: (Likely a typo or misreading; possibly refers to "Gestalt law" or "Gestalt latent" principles, which are rules about how we naturally organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes.)
Article Blindness: The tendency to overlook individual elements when focusing on the whole, a concept from Gestalt psychology.
Humanistic Psychology: Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization (e.g., helping people achieve their potential).
Unconditional Positive Regard: A concept from humanistic psychology (Carl Rogers), meaning accepting and supporting a person regardless of what they say or do.
Cognitive Science/Neuroscience: Study of mental processes and the biological basis of behavior (e.g., memory, brain function).
Biopsychology: The study of how biological processes, especially those in the brain and nervous system, influence behavior and mental processes.
Personality Psychology: The study of individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Five Factor Model of Personality: A widely accepted model describing five broad dimensions of personality: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Sensation and Perception: Sensation is the process of receiving physical stimuli from the environment, while perception is the interpretation of those stimuli by the brain (e.g., seeing and recognizing a tree).
Developmental Psychology: The study of how people grow and change throughout life, including cognitive, emotional, and social development (e.g., learning to walk, talk, or understand object permanence).
Object Permanence: The understanding, typically developed in infancy, that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.
Perpetuation: The process of causing something to continue or be sustained, such as the perpetuation of behaviors or beliefs over time.
Developmental Theory: A framework for understanding how and why people change over time, often focusing on stages of growth (e.g., Piaget’s stages of cognitive development).

Action Items / Next Steps

Prepare to explore the major schools of thought, key concepts, and the evolution of psychology in upcoming lessons.
Expect to examine how the brain works, how it can malfunction, how it can be healed, and why humans behave as they do, with real-life examples.
Anticipate discussions on consciousness, self-awareness, mental illness, and the methods used to study the mind, including both observation and introspection.
Review and understand the definitions and examples of key terms, as these will be important for deeper study in future lessons.