Notes on the Thirty Years' War and the Westphalian Order

Introduction

The Thirty Years' War was marked by extreme brutality.
Not only armies but also gangs of mercenaries and former soldiers contributed to the destruction across Europe, particularly in Germany.
Notably, all parties involved were Christians, raising questions about Christian morality in warfare.

Previous examples of brutality in European history include the Crusades and conflicts with the Ottoman Empire.
The Thirty Years' War was significant as it was the first major conflict between Christian nations post-Renaissance.
Thinkers like Thomas Hobbes began to explore alternatives to Christian morality in international politics.

The prolonged conflict (30 years) led to significant loss of life and a desire for resolution.
Henry Kissinger noted that the exhaustion and cynicism of the war participants facilitated the transformation of war into broader concepts of world order.

The peace process was not a single event but a series of negotiations held in two German cities, involving around 400-450 participants, mostly bureaucrats and lawyers rather than monarchs.
This highlights the unique nature of the Westphalian order, as it was shaped by legal representatives rather than heads of state.

The Westphalian treaties established three core principles:
1. Cuius Regio, Eius Religio: The ruler's religion dictates the religion of the territory, emphasizing that religious matters are internal affairs.
2. Sovereign Equality: All states are independent and equal, reflected in the United Nations Charter.
3. Balance of Power: No state should dominate others; this principle has remained central to European politics and international relations.

Major European conflicts (e.g., Napoleonic Wars, World Wars) often arose from attempts by one state to assert dominance over others.
The anarchy in international relations is closely tied to these power struggles.

Kissinger emphasized that the Westphalian system's genius lies in its procedural nature rather than substantive outcomes; it does not concern itself with territorial claims but with how states interact.
States must accept core requirements to be recognized as international citizens, ensuring respect for sovereignty and non-interference in internal matters.

The three Westphalian principles continue to underpin modern international relations.
The lecture concludes with a transition to the liberal tradition in international relations theory, beginning with the Christian tradition.