Plato's theory of Forms (or Ideas) The beginning of metaphysics as a science is marked by Plato's theory of Forms from the "Phaidon". In this dialogue Socrates claims that an explanation for the cause of something empirical must fall back on something non-empirical. What does he mean by this? Socrates, for example, liked to ask things like: What is bravery? And got something like: Bravery is a fighter who does not flee in the midst of battle, but fends off his enemies. But Socrates was not looking for examples, but for qualities of bravery that are identical in all individual cases. To make sure that bravery was always meant the same. Bravery is when a mother pulls her child out of the fire. Bravery is when a student defends a bullied classmate. Bravery is when someone reports from a war zone. That may all be true. But what do these braves have in common? Behind all this is a new way of thinking, that of formally answering such a question, what something is. A general definition is sought. Socrates is concerned with the concept and the underlying principle. He recognized that the principles of things must be of a different kind than the sensually experiencable areas of the material in which they apply. The cause of material processes such as a jam bread falling to the ground The cause can neither be touched nor seen, let alone eaten. A cause is not a phenomenon. It is abstract, quite different from phenomena. So if you want to explain causes, Socrates considered that instead of using your five senses you have to use your head: logical thinking. One had to think about things, in Greek: "logoi". And these thoughts, or "logoi", as it were, form the basis of the facts to be clarified. This is the method of hypothesis, where, as the name suggests, hypotheses get around. That's obvious. In this way Socrates paved the way for the theory of Forms of his student Plato. Marginal note: Plato's theory of Forms is not a certain writing or dialogue of the philosopher. Nor is it the "Phaidon" mentioned at the beginning. Rather, the theory of Forms is a subsequent, scientific construct that came about through the observation of Plato's complete works. For Plato, real, truthful knowledge contains the following characteristics: It is generally valid, unchangeable and justifiable. Empirical knowledge, on the other hand, i.e. everything we think we know about the sensually experiencable world around us, is not suitable for real knowledge. For sensory perceptions are often mistaken. And the things we perceive with our senses change. If you reach the end of a road, the mirage has disappeared there at the end. And if you stay there for a few decades, the street will look completely different. Brittle and overgrown, if no one cares. Now Plato says that hypotheses, i.e. the thoughts we have had about the causes of things, must be free of contradictions – and deducible from the Forms (or Ideas). An idea in Plato's theory of Forms is something that can only be seen with the mind's eye. In this sense, an Form (or Idea) is unchangeable, perfect and immune to any human manipulation. It is what constitutes the essence of a thing. For example: the definition of a circle as a set of all points at equal distance from a given point. In the sensually perceivable world it is impossible to find a perfect circle. If you just get close enough, even with a microscope, you will always find points that deviate from the perfect circle. The perfect circle can only be found in the world of "logoi", our thoughts. So does beauty. If it exists, it is only as a Form (or an Idea) of beauty. It is being in the true sense, it is perfect, unchangeable, accessible only to thought, archetype and cause and unlimited in time. If in the sensually perceivable world around us we perceive something as beautiful - a plant, a human being, or a painting – it is because we know the idea of beauty and these things – plant, human being, painting - participate in the Form (or Idea). The thing is appearing, i.e. a phenomenon, and in contrast to the idea it is imperfect, changeable, accessible only to the senses, image and effect and limited in time. The idea is the basis of existence of sensually perceivable things. Accordingly, these things are only being in the attenuated sense. They exist only because the ideas exist. And only then, when one has recognized the ideas, one is able to comprehend the individual things. With his theory of the ideas Plato wants to clarify the relations between the conceivable and the experienceable. How well he succeeded has been discussed for over 2000 years. I personally like Plato's idea of Forms (or Ideas) very much, even if it seems too good to be true – it all smells very much like the kind of causality our brain needs to explain the world to itself. That's it from me. Thank you very much for your attention. I'll see you next time.