On the morning of January 25, 750, the mighty Umayyad Caliphate’s army gathered at the Great Zab River, in modern-day Iraq. Their leaders liked what they saw. The battle-hardened Umayyad cavalry was about to go toe to toe with the vastly outnumbered Abbasid army. But the Umayyads were in for a sickening shock… On paper, the Umayyads were expected to waltz through the feeble Abbasid defenses and put an end to the increasingly troublesome opponents of the Caliphate. The Abbasid army was a motley crew of dissidents and rebellious Arabs, non-Arabs, and Christians. The Caliphate cavalry was expected to slaughter the unruly rebels and quash any further challenges or uprisings. However, despite the huge numbers of personnel, many of the Umayyad soldiers were having second thoughts…
The Umayyads had recently been soundly defeated in decisive battles, and confidence in the leadership was at an all-time low. The Abbasids, on the other hand, couldn’t wait to rip into battle. They had amassed some experienced former Umayyad fighters and assembled a tough and brutal army of men who were highly motivated to bring an end to Umayyad rule. By the end of the day, the Umayyad Caliphate had all but collapsed in a shocking defeat. After a century of rule, the Umayyads were no more. The rise of the Abbasids had begun… At the height of its powers, the Umayyad Caliphate was one of the world’s biggest ever empires. The Islamic dynasty was a true powerhouse, with its reach stretching throughout three continents, amassing a huge area of over 11 million square kilometers - a larger land mass than China or Canada - with the Umayyad rule spreading into Africa, much of Asia and as far west as Spain. The Umayyads ruled over approximately 30 million people, which at the time was almost a third of the world’s population. But in the mid-8th century, things came to a bloody end. Almost all of the Umayyad princes were put to the sword when the Umayyad armies were overpowered and slaughtered by the Abbasids in 750. It brought the curtain down on a mighty reign that had lasted over 100 years and set up the Abbasids as the next long-ruling Caliphate. In a century of rule, the Umayyad Caliphate was one of the most important periods in Islamic history. The Umayyads made numerous key contributions to art, science, architecture, and politics. They brought innovations to political administration and military operations and were renowned for their meticulous management of an empire that included millions of people of varying religious and cultural backgrounds. The Umayyads were the second of the major caliphates that followed the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632. Caliphates were essentially systems of Islamic governance, with caliphs being the head of state. After Muhammad’s death, his long-time advisor Abu Bakr was announced as the first of the caliphs to succeed Muhammad. The word “caliph” is loosely derived from an Arabic term for “successor”. Abu Bakr stepped up and the first of the Caliphates began – known as the Rashidun. Over the next thirty years, four caliphs ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate. Right from the outset, the Rashidun period was embroiled in bitter political infighting, ongoing power struggles, and frequent outbursts of bloodshed. When the third Rashidun caliph Uthman was murdered, everything started to boil over… Uthman’s cousin was Mu’awiya, the powerful governor of Syria. Mu’awiya was enraged that his cousin’s successor Ali had done nothing to avenge the murder. He saw Ali as a weak link and civil war broke out… In 661, Ali was assassinated during his morning prayer. A former follower turned dissident pursued him to his place of prayer and stabbed him with a sword soaked in poison. With Ali dead, a vacancy for a new caliph suddenly opened up. Mu’awiya was quick to put up his hand. Less than thirty years after Muhammad died, Mu'awiya the First seized power and became the first Umayyad caliph in 661... The Umayyads had inherited huge expanses of land with a multicultural and diverse population that included Jews, non-Arab Muslims, and millions of Christians. Almost from the get-go, the Umayyad Caliphate was met with dissent. Mu'awiya was the first caliph not to come from a direct lineage to Muhammad. He had also come to Islam late, having been opposed to some of Muhammad’s beliefs when he worked for the prophet as a scribe. Mu'awiya was acting as the Governor of Syria when he saw his chance to wrest control from the previous caliphs, who had close family ties to Muhammad and appointed their successors prior to dying. The Umayyad system was completely different though – it was a dynasty. This was a major sore point for many Muslims, who saw the Umayyad’s hereditary form of governance, as going against tradition and the natural order of things. Many argued that caliphs should only have been direct descendants of Muhammad or from his lineage. Others were angered at the perceived lack of appropriate piety and improper Islamic practices. The Umayyads set up a centralized system of government that went against the traditional nomad lifestyle of many Arabs in the empire. This centralized system’s center was based in Damascus, Syria and this further led to grievances that preference was being given to Syrian Arabs over other Muslims. Despite the protests, Mu’awiya was quick to make his mark. He immediately set about drawing on the immense strength of his Syrian military to launch the expansion of the Umayyad empire. Mu’awiya had his sights on extending the empire into North Africa, Central Asia, and through Europe. To make things clear to all concerned, any uprisings or even potential uprisings were swiftly and brutally dealt with. The message was clear – do not fool around with the new caliphate… Mu’awiya realized the importance of having a uniform and connected system of political administration. He set up a police network throughout the empire to ensure law and order were upheld. Governors were appointed to various regions and reported to the center of the caliphate in Damascus. Thus, the work of Mu’awiya laid the foundations for the next caliphs to continue to expand the Umayyad territories. Under the rule of al-Walid the First, from 705 to his death in 715, the Umayyad Caliphate was at its mightiest. The Umayyad armies were proving to be an unstoppable force and stormed across huge areas of land, annihilating anyone who stood in their way. At the peak of its greatness, the Umayyad Caliphate ruled over modern-day Iraq, Iran, Egypt, North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia. Its borders ran from the Atlantic in the far west, all the way down to the Indus River near Pakistan and India. However, time and time again, history has shown that when an empire is seemingly invincible…it’s actually at its most vulnerable… Many of those living under Umayyad rule were unhappy with what they saw as an unfair distribution of wealth and limited opportunities for non-Arabs. Arab Muslims, particularly those in Syria were seen to be favored by the Caliphate. Even though the Umayyads were remarkably tolerant of other religions and permitted religious freedom, the general feeling was that a bias existed towards Syrian Muslims. The time was right for an uprising, and it came in the form of the Abbasids… The Abbasids were initially family members related to Muhammad, via his uncle al-ʿAbbās. They took their uncle’s name to call themselves the Abbasids and immediately went about rounding up support for their mission to overthrow the Umayyad Caliphate. Like many, the Abbasids were unhappy with being ruled by the Umayyads. They’d simply had enough of the Umayyad system of hereditary rule, the favoritism shown to Syrian Arabs, and the lack of rights and treatment shown towards non-Arab Muslims and other religions. Non-Arabs and non-Muslims were required to pay special taxes to the government, which was starting to grate - the vast majority of people living under Umayyad rule were non-Muslims. Even the non-Arab Muslims only accounted for around 10% of the population. The Abbasids declared that they wanted a new caliph who was directly related to Muhammad and that when the time came, they would nominate the most suitable candidate. The Abbasids quickly gained support from the disenchanted masses and began building an army. The Umayyads were watching on anxiously but were reasonably confident that if push came to shove, their sheer weight of military numbers would see off any threats or uprisings. But then, things took a turn for the worse for the Umayyads when they were soundly defeated by the Byzantine army at the Siege of Constantinople in 717…
It was the second attempt by Arab forces to take control of the famous city, which was a highly sought-after strategic stronghold, as it linked Asia with Europe. The battle was fought in a bitterly unforgiving winter on the steps of Constantinople, as Umayyad forces struggled against a lack of food and adequate protection against the harsh cold. The Byzantines were led by the clever and tenacious Leo the Third. They employed a devastating weapon known as “Greek fire”, which was a simple form of a petroleum-type bomb. This, aided by well-organized defensive tactics and a severe winter, saw the Umayyads retreat in a humiliating defeat. Meanwhile, the Abbasids were building up their armed forces and laying plans for when to launch a full-scale uprising. By now, there was a long list of people itching to have a crack at the Umayyad forces. In 747, the Abbasids decided to make their move by taking control of Persia – modern-day Iran. This was the perfect place to start. Not only had Persian rights and culture been repressed under the Umayyad rule, but there were ample numbers of Persian soldiers very willing to bear arms with the Abbasids. The Abbasids fought their way down through Persia, driving back the Umayyad forces time and time again. By the autumn of 749, the Abbasids had marched boldly into Mesopotamia – modern-day Iraq. The Umayyad army was not only exhausted but fast losing interest. Many of the soldiers were Christians or non-Arab Muslims, and they were starting to identify with the Abbasid cause. Finally, in January 750, the Abbasids overpowered the Umayyads at the Great Zab River. The Abbasids were simply more committed and better prepared. They weathered the Umayyad attack and then cut them to pieces in waves of counter-offensives. Umayyad generals and leaders fled but were hunted down and executed. The Abbasids appointed their first caliph, Abu al-ʿAbbas al-Saffah, and a 500-year period of rule began. And for the Umayyads, one of the greatest empires in history had come to an end…