AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition Overview with Mr. Sin

Introduction

• The lecture covers key concepts in cognition for AP Psychology.
• Study guide available to accompany the lecture.
• Importance of active note-taking and using the ultimate review packet.

Perception vs. Sensation

• Sensation: Raw data received from sensory receptors.
• Perception: Interpretation of sensory information.

Types of Processing

• Top-Down Processing: Uses prior knowledge and experiences.
  • Efficient but may lead to errors (e.g., proofreader's illusion).
• Bottom-Up Processing: Builds perception from the ground up.
  • Used for complex and unfamiliar stimuli.

Schemas and Perceptual Sets

• Schemas: Mental frameworks from past experiences.
• Perceptual Sets: Mental shortcuts influenced by emotions or expectations.

Influence on Perception

• Internal Factors: Mood, culture, expectations.
• External Factors: Environment, upbringing (e.g., urban vs. rural).

Attention and Phenomena

• Selective Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli (e.g., cocktail party effect).
• Inattentional Blindness: Missing stimuli due to divided attention.
• Change Blindness: Noticing changes in the environment.

Movement Perception

• Apparent Movement: Perception of motion from still images.
• Stroboscopic Motion: Used in films/animations.
• Phi Phenomenon: Perception of movement from sequential lights.
• Induced Movement: Perception of motion due to surrounding objects.
• Autokinetic Effect: Stationary light appears to move in the dark.

Gestalt Principles

• Figure and Ground: Distinguishing objects from background.
• Continuation: Following continuous lines or paths.
• Closure: Filling in missing information in a familiar object.
• Similarity: Grouping similar objects together.
• Proximity: Objects close together perceived as a group.
• Symmetry: Symmetrical objects perceived as a unified whole.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Require both eyes (e.g., convergence, retinal disparity).
• Monocular Cues: Require one eye (e.g., relative size, interposition).

Perceptual Constancies

• Size Constancy: Perceiving objects as the same size despite distance changes.
• Color Constancy: Perceiving consistent color under different lighting.
• Shape Constancy: Recognizing consistent shape despite movement.
• Lightness Constancy: Perceiving constant shading under different lighting.

Cognition and Problem Solving

• Concepts: Mental categories for organizing the world.
• Prototypes: Typical examples of a concept.
• Schemas: Complex frameworks based on past experiences.

Executive Functions

• Algorithms: Step-by-step problem-solving techniques.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts for quick decision-making.
• Representative Heuristics: Judgment based on resemblance to a stereotype.
• Availability Heuristics: Judgment based on easily recalled memories.

Creativity

• Divergent Thinking: Exploring multiple solutions.
• Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down to one solution.
• Robert Sternberg's Five Components of Creativity:
  • Expertise
  • Imaginative Thinking Skills
  • Venturesome Personality
  • Intrinsic Motivation
  • Creative Environment

Cognitive Biases

• Gambler's Fallacy: Incorrect belief in event frequency affecting future.
• Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing an action due to prior investment.

Memory

• Types of Memory:
  • Explicit Memory: Consciously recalled information.
  • Implicit Memory: Skills learned unconsciously.
  • Prospective Memory: Remembering future tasks.
• Long-Term Potentiation: Strengthening synaptic connections.
• Working Memory Model:
  • Visual-Spatial Sketchpad
  • Phonological Loop
  • Central Executive
  • Episodic Buffer

Multi-Store Memory Model

• Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information.
• Working Memory: Short-term memory for active processing.
• Long-Term Memory: Unlimited storage capacity.
• Memory Encoding: Levels of processing affect retention.

Encoding Strategies

• Visual, Acoustic, Tactile, Organizational Encoding.
• Mnemonic Devices: Techniques to aid memory (e.g., method of loci).
• Chunking: Grouping information into larger units.

Memory Retrieval

• Recall vs. Recognition: Different methods of accessing memory.
• Context, Mood, and State-Dependent Memory.

Forgetting and Interference

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial loss, then levels off.
• Encoding Failure: Information not properly stored/encoded.
• Proactive/Retroactive Interference: Older/newer memories block recall.

Intelligence

• General Intelligence (G) vs. Multiple Abilities.
• Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence.
• Fixed vs. Growth Mindset.
• IQ Testing: Historical and modern uses.

Psychometrics

• Standardization, Reliability, Validity of intelligence tests.
• Flynn Effect: Rising IQ scores over time.
• Achievement vs. Aptitude Tests: Current knowledge vs. future potential.

Conclusion

• Importance of understanding and applying psychological principles in cognition and memory.