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Comprehensive Biology Exam Overview

May 18, 2025

Spring Semester Cumulative Biology Exam Review

General Biology

Genus Species

  • Scientific names are in binomial nomenclature (two-part names).
  • Format: Genus (capitalized) + species (lowercase); both are italicized (or underlined if handwritten).
  • Example: Homo sapiens (humans)
  • Purpose: To avoid confusion caused by common names worldwide.

Autotroph vs. Heterotroph

  • Autotrophs make their own food (e.g., plants, algae through photosynthesis).
    • Types: Photoautotrophs (use sunlight), Chemoautotrophs (use chemicals)
  • Heterotrophs obtain food from other organisms (e.g., animals, fungi).
    • Types: Consumers, decomposers

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic

  • Prokaryotic Cells: No nucleus, smaller, simple, found in bacteria and archaea.
  • Eukaryotic Cells: Have a true nucleus, larger, more complex, found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
  • Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria, ER).

Define Biology

  • The study of life.

Evolution

Natural Selection

  • "Best fit" refers to traits that help an organism survive and reproduce in its environment.
  • Fitness is measured by reproductive success (number of viable offspring).

Charles Darwin

  • Known as the Father of Evolution.
  • Developed the theory of natural selection.
  • Studied finches and tortoises on the Galapagos Islands to understand species adaptation.

Convergent vs. Divergent Evolution

  • Convergent Evolution: Different species develop similar traits due to similar environments (e.g., wings of bats and birds).
  • Divergent Evolution: One species splits into different ones (e.g., Darwin's finches with different beak shapes).

Evidence of Evolution

  • Fossils: Show changes over time, trace evolution.
  • Rock Layers: Older layers are deeper, help date fossils.
  • Amino Acid Sequences/BioChemistry: Similar DNA/proteins indicate related species.
  • Embryology: Similar embryos suggest common ancestry.
  • Homologous Structures: Same structure, different function, common ancestor (e.g., human arm, bat wing).
  • Analogous Structures: Different structure, same function, no common ancestor (e.g., bird and insect wings).

Microbiology

Viruses

  • Non-living particles, not cells.
  • Structure includes genetic material (DNA or RNA), protein coat (capsid), and sometimes an outer envelope.
  • Bacteriophages: Viruses that infect bacteria.

Life Cycles

  • Lytic: Virus overtakes cell, replicates, and lyses cell.
  • Lysogenic: Viral DNA integrates into host DNA, remains dormant until triggered.

Pathogens

  • Disease-causing agents: viruses, bacteria, etc.

Diseases

  • Common Cold: Caused by rhinovirus.
  • Influenza: Caused by flu virus; mutates quickly.
  • AIDS: Caused by HIV; attacks immune system.

Bacteria

  • Prokaryotic cells.
  • Kingdoms include Archaebacteria (extremophiles) and Eubacteria (common bacteria).
  • Reproduction: Binary fission (asexual), conjugation (genetic exchange).
  • Shapes: Spiral, Coccus, Bacillus.
  • Diseases: Gonorrhea, strep throat, botulism.

Bacterial Respiration vs. Fermentation

  • Respiration: Uses oxygen to make energy.
  • Fermentation: No oxygen, less efficient.

Aerobes vs. Anaerobes

  • Obligate Aerobes: Require oxygen.
  • Obligate Anaerobes: Die in presence of oxygen.

Symbiotic Relationships

  • Mutualism: Both parties benefit (e.g., E. coli in intestines)
  • Parasitism: Bacteria harm host.

Virus vs. Bacteria

  • Viruses mutate faster, especially RNA viruses.
  • Antibiotic Effectiveness: Only on bacteria, overuse can lead to resistance.

Animal Terms/Concepts

Invertebrates vs. Vertebrates

Phylogenetic Trees

Levels of Taxonomy

  • Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Anatomical Directions

  • Nerve Cord: Dorsal vs. ventral
  • Anterior vs. Posterior
  • Dorsal vs. Ventral
  • Bilateral vs. Radial Symmetry

Other Concepts

  • Anatomy of leeches, dissection, and coelomates.

Invertebrates

  • Includes Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata.

Vertebrates

  • Includes Chordata, Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.

Body Systems

  • Review various body systems and their physiology.

  • Feature Comparison

    • Virus: Non-living, not a cell, replicates in host, smaller, treated with vaccines/antivirals, causes cold, flu, AIDS.
    • Bacteria: Living, prokaryotic cell, asexual reproduction, larger, treated with antibiotics, causes strep, gonorrhea, botulism.