Spring Semester Cumulative Biology Exam Review

General Biology

Genus Species

• Scientific names are in binomial nomenclature (two-part names).
• Format: Genus (capitalized) + species (lowercase); both are italicized (or underlined if handwritten).
• Example: Homo sapiens (humans)
• Purpose: To avoid confusion caused by common names worldwide.

Autotroph vs. Heterotroph

• Autotrophs make their own food (e.g., plants, algae through photosynthesis).
  • Types: Photoautotrophs (use sunlight), Chemoautotrophs (use chemicals)
• Heterotrophs obtain food from other organisms (e.g., animals, fungi).
  • Types: Consumers, decomposers

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic

• Prokaryotic Cells: No nucleus, smaller, simple, found in bacteria and archaea.
• Eukaryotic Cells: Have a true nucleus, larger, more complex, found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
• Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria, ER).

Define Biology

• The study of life.

Evolution

Natural Selection

• "Best fit" refers to traits that help an organism survive and reproduce in its environment.
• Fitness is measured by reproductive success (number of viable offspring).

Charles Darwin

• Known as the Father of Evolution.
• Developed the theory of natural selection.
• Studied finches and tortoises on the Galapagos Islands to understand species adaptation.

Convergent vs. Divergent Evolution

• Convergent Evolution: Different species develop similar traits due to similar environments (e.g., wings of bats and birds).
• Divergent Evolution: One species splits into different ones (e.g., Darwin's finches with different beak shapes).

Evidence of Evolution

• Fossils: Show changes over time, trace evolution.
• Rock Layers: Older layers are deeper, help date fossils.
• Amino Acid Sequences/BioChemistry: Similar DNA/proteins indicate related species.
• Embryology: Similar embryos suggest common ancestry.
• Homologous Structures: Same structure, different function, common ancestor (e.g., human arm, bat wing).
• Analogous Structures: Different structure, same function, no common ancestor (e.g., bird and insect wings).

Microbiology

Viruses

• Non-living particles, not cells.
• Structure includes genetic material (DNA or RNA), protein coat (capsid), and sometimes an outer envelope.
• Bacteriophages: Viruses that infect bacteria.

Life Cycles

• Lytic: Virus overtakes cell, replicates, and lyses cell.
• Lysogenic: Viral DNA integrates into host DNA, remains dormant until triggered.

Pathogens

• Disease-causing agents: viruses, bacteria, etc.

Diseases

• Common Cold: Caused by rhinovirus.
• Influenza: Caused by flu virus; mutates quickly.
• AIDS: Caused by HIV; attacks immune system.

Bacteria

• Prokaryotic cells.
• Kingdoms include Archaebacteria (extremophiles) and Eubacteria (common bacteria).
• Reproduction: Binary fission (asexual), conjugation (genetic exchange).
• Shapes: Spiral, Coccus, Bacillus.
• Diseases: Gonorrhea, strep throat, botulism.

Bacterial Respiration vs. Fermentation

• Respiration: Uses oxygen to make energy.
• Fermentation: No oxygen, less efficient.

Aerobes vs. Anaerobes

• Obligate Aerobes: Require oxygen.
• Obligate Anaerobes: Die in presence of oxygen.

Symbiotic Relationships

• Mutualism: Both parties benefit (e.g., E. coli in intestines)
• Parasitism: Bacteria harm host.

Virus vs. Bacteria

• Viruses mutate faster, especially RNA viruses.
• Antibiotic Effectiveness: Only on bacteria, overuse can lead to resistance.

Animal Terms/Concepts

Invertebrates vs. Vertebrates

Phylogenetic Trees

Levels of Taxonomy

• Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Anatomical Directions

• Nerve Cord: Dorsal vs. ventral
• Anterior vs. Posterior
• Dorsal vs. Ventral
• Bilateral vs. Radial Symmetry

Other Concepts

• Anatomy of leeches, dissection, and coelomates.

Invertebrates

• Includes Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata.

Vertebrates

• Includes Chordata, Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.

Body Systems

• Review various body systems and their physiology.

• Feature Comparison

  • Virus: Non-living, not a cell, replicates in host, smaller, treated with vaccines/antivirals, causes cold, flu, AIDS.
  • Bacteria: Living, prokaryotic cell, asexual reproduction, larger, treated with antibiotics, causes strep, gonorrhea, botulism.