AP Psychology Lecture: Cognitive Psychology Review

Introduction

• Focus: Cognitive psychology, memory, thinking, problem-solving, intelligence, language.
• Cognition: Mental process of acquiring knowledge through thought, experiences, and senses.

Memory Models

Stage Model of Memory

• Proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Schreffen.
• Consists of: Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

• Registers information from the environment briefly (seconds).
• Types:
  • Echoic Memory (audio): Lasts up to 3 seconds.
  • Iconic Memory (visual): Lasts about a quarter of a second.
• Discovered by George Sperling (1960).

Short-Term Memory (STM)

• Holds items we are currently aware of and working with.
• Capacity: 7 items ±2 (George M. Miller’s research).
• Chunking: Increases capacity by grouping information.
• Working Memory: Active manipulation of information (Alan Baddeley).

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Storage over extended periods, limitless capacity.
• Encoding Methods:
  • Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition of information.
  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new information with existing.
• Types of LTM:
  • Declarative: Episodic (events) and semantic (facts).
  • Non-Declarative: Procedural (skills/habits).

Memory Retrieval

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues.
• Recognition: Feeling of familiarity with past events.
• Serial Position Effect: Tendency to recall first and last items.
• Encoding Specificity Principle: Easier retrieval under similar conditions.
• Mood Congruent Memory: Memories tied to emotions during encoding.

Forgetting and Memory Distortion

• Theories of Forgetting:
  • Encoding Failure: Information never properly encoded.
  • Decay Theory: Memory fades due to biological processes.
  • Interference: Proactive (old blocks new) and retroactive (new blocks old).
  • Suppressed vs. Repressed Memories
• False Memories: Research by Elizabeth Loftus.
  • Misinformation Effect: Alteration by misleading info.
  • Imagination Inflation: Increased confidence in imagined events.

Problem Solving and Thinking

Processes

• Concepts and Prototypes: Mental categories and typical instances.
• Problem Solving Strategies:
  • Algorithms: Step-by-step solutions.
  • Heuristics: Rule-of-thumb strategies.
  • Insight Learning
• Obstacles: Confirmation bias, fixation, functional fixedness.
• Framing and Heuristics: Influence of presentation on decision-making.

Intelligence

Theories and Testing

• IQ Tests: Developed by Alfred Binet and improved by Lewis Terman (Stanford-Binet) and David Weschler (WAIS).
• Theories:
  • Charles Spearman: General intelligence (g-factor).
  • Howard Gardner: Multiple intelligences (different skills valued across cultures).
  • Robert Sternberg: Triarchic theory (analytical, creative, practical).
• Nature vs. Nurture: Influence of genetics and environment.
  • Twin studies show both play a role.

Language

Components

• Phonemes and Morphemes: Basic units of sound and meaning.
• Grammar, Semantics, Syntax:
  • Over-regularization: Incorrect application of rules.
• Language Development Stages: Babbling, hollow phrases, telegraphic speech.
• Critical Period Hypothesis: Importance of early language exposure.
  • Noam Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device, universal grammar.

Language and Thought

• Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Benjamin Whorf): Language may shape thought and perception.

Conclusion

• Review questions at the end of each unit for better understanding.
• Next topic: Developmental psychology.