AQA Psychology A-level Notes

Topic 8: Issues and Debates

Part 1: Gender Bias

• Definition: Differential treatment or representation based on stereotypes rather than actual differences.
• Alpha Bias: Exaggerates differences between genders, leading to devaluation, often of women.
  • Psychodynamic explanations of offending behavior (Freud)
  • Sociobiological theory of relationship formation (Wilson)
  • Schizophrenia diagnosis rates (historical bias)
• Androcentrism: Comparing all behavior to a male standard, neglecting women.
  • Example: Criticism of PMS
  • Fight or flight research primarily on males
• Beta Bias: Ignoring or minimizing differences between genders.
  • Example: Kohlberg's moral reasoning based on male samples
• Universality: Aim for theories applicable to everyone, recognizing real differences.

Evaluation

• Feminist psychology: Argues differences arise from stereotypes more than biological reasons.
• Bias in Research Methods: Gender-biased findings may result more from methods used than actual gender differences.
• Institutionalized Sexism: Laboratory settings often favor male perspectives.
• Reverse Alpha Bias: Greater emphasis on women, e.g., learning studies.
• Avoiding Beta Bias: Highlights special needs and challenges faced by women.
• Challenging Assumptions: Unchallenged gender bias in many theories.

Part 2: Cultural Bias

• Definition: Judging other cultures by one's own cultural norms, leading to bias.
• Cultural Relativism: Behavior can only be judged in its cultural context.
  • Example: Different obedience levels in Milgram's studies across cultures.
• Alpha Bias: Assumption of real differences leads to ignoring universals.
• Beta Bias: Minimizing cultural differences can lead to misdiagnosis.
• Ethnocentrism: Seeing the world from one's own cultural perspective.

Evaluation

• Bias in Research Methods: Over-representation of Western cultures in research.
• Consequences: Cultural bias can lead to stereotyping and discrimination.
• Universality: Recognizing both universal and culture-specific behaviors.

Part 3: Free Will and Determinism

• Determinism: Behavior controlled by internal/external factors.
  • Biological: Genes and neurochemistry
  • Environmental: Conditioning
  • Psychic: Freud's theory
• Free Will: Power to make choices independently.
• Hard Determinism: No free will, behavior is predictable.
• Soft Determinism: Allows for some free will.

Evaluation

• Genetic Determinism: Not absolute, influenced by environment.
• Simplification: Determinism may overly simplify human behavior.
• Judicial System: Hard determinism conflicts with moral responsibility.
• Free Will Illusion: Choices may be determined by past reinforcements.
• Challenges to Free Will: Neurological studies suggest pre-determined actions.

Part 4: Nature vs. Nurture Debate

• Environment: External influences on behavior.
• Nature: Genetic influences.
• Interactionist Approach: Nature and nurture work together.

Evaluation

• Diathesis-Stress Model: Genetic vulnerability combined with environmental stressors.
• Nurture Affects Nature: Experience can alter brain structure.
• Epigenetics: Life experiences can turn genes on/off.

Part 5: Holism and Reductionism

• Holism: Viewing behavior as a whole rather than parts.
• Reductionism: Breaking down behavior into simpler components.

Evaluation

• Holism: Provides complete behavioral understanding but lacks empirical evidence.
• Reductionism: Consistent with scientific approach but may ignore behavioral complexity.

Part 6: Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Approaches

• Idiographic: Focus on individual uniqueness, qualitative data.
• Nomothetic: Establishes general laws through group studies and quantitative data.

Evaluation

• Idiographic: Provides in-depth understanding but lacks generalizability.
• Nomothetic: High scientific credibility but may undervalue individual experiences.

Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

• Socially-Sensitive Research: Research with potential social consequences.
• Examples: Bowlby’s attachment theory, Burt’s intelligence research.

Evaluation

• Importance: Avoiding socially-sensitive research limits understanding.
• Social Control: Research can be misused for discrimination.
• Responsibility: Researchers should present findings responsibly.