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AQA Psychology: Gender and Cultural Bias

Apr 28, 2025

AQA Psychology A-level Notes

Topic 8: Issues and Debates

Part 1: Gender Bias

  • Definition: Differential treatment or representation based on stereotypes rather than actual differences.
  • Alpha Bias: Exaggerates differences between genders, leading to devaluation, often of women.
    • Psychodynamic explanations of offending behavior (Freud)
    • Sociobiological theory of relationship formation (Wilson)
    • Schizophrenia diagnosis rates (historical bias)
  • Androcentrism: Comparing all behavior to a male standard, neglecting women.
    • Example: Criticism of PMS
    • Fight or flight research primarily on males
  • Beta Bias: Ignoring or minimizing differences between genders.
    • Example: Kohlberg's moral reasoning based on male samples
  • Universality: Aim for theories applicable to everyone, recognizing real differences.

Evaluation

  • Feminist psychology: Argues differences arise from stereotypes more than biological reasons.
  • Bias in Research Methods: Gender-biased findings may result more from methods used than actual gender differences.
  • Institutionalized Sexism: Laboratory settings often favor male perspectives.
  • Reverse Alpha Bias: Greater emphasis on women, e.g., learning studies.
  • Avoiding Beta Bias: Highlights special needs and challenges faced by women.
  • Challenging Assumptions: Unchallenged gender bias in many theories.

Part 2: Cultural Bias

  • Definition: Judging other cultures by one's own cultural norms, leading to bias.
  • Cultural Relativism: Behavior can only be judged in its cultural context.
    • Example: Different obedience levels in Milgram's studies across cultures.
  • Alpha Bias: Assumption of real differences leads to ignoring universals.
  • Beta Bias: Minimizing cultural differences can lead to misdiagnosis.
  • Ethnocentrism: Seeing the world from one's own cultural perspective.

Evaluation

  • Bias in Research Methods: Over-representation of Western cultures in research.
  • Consequences: Cultural bias can lead to stereotyping and discrimination.
  • Universality: Recognizing both universal and culture-specific behaviors.

Part 3: Free Will and Determinism

  • Determinism: Behavior controlled by internal/external factors.
    • Biological: Genes and neurochemistry
    • Environmental: Conditioning
    • Psychic: Freud's theory
  • Free Will: Power to make choices independently.
  • Hard Determinism: No free will, behavior is predictable.
  • Soft Determinism: Allows for some free will.

Evaluation

  • Genetic Determinism: Not absolute, influenced by environment.
  • Simplification: Determinism may overly simplify human behavior.
  • Judicial System: Hard determinism conflicts with moral responsibility.
  • Free Will Illusion: Choices may be determined by past reinforcements.
  • Challenges to Free Will: Neurological studies suggest pre-determined actions.

Part 4: Nature vs. Nurture Debate

  • Environment: External influences on behavior.
  • Nature: Genetic influences.
  • Interactionist Approach: Nature and nurture work together.

Evaluation

  • Diathesis-Stress Model: Genetic vulnerability combined with environmental stressors.
  • Nurture Affects Nature: Experience can alter brain structure.
  • Epigenetics: Life experiences can turn genes on/off.

Part 5: Holism and Reductionism

  • Holism: Viewing behavior as a whole rather than parts.
  • Reductionism: Breaking down behavior into simpler components.

Evaluation

  • Holism: Provides complete behavioral understanding but lacks empirical evidence.
  • Reductionism: Consistent with scientific approach but may ignore behavioral complexity.

Part 6: Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Approaches

  • Idiographic: Focus on individual uniqueness, qualitative data.
  • Nomothetic: Establishes general laws through group studies and quantitative data.

Evaluation

  • Idiographic: Provides in-depth understanding but lacks generalizability.
  • Nomothetic: High scientific credibility but may undervalue individual experiences.

Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

  • Socially-Sensitive Research: Research with potential social consequences.
  • Examples: Bowlby’s attachment theory, Burt’s intelligence research.

Evaluation

  • Importance: Avoiding socially-sensitive research limits understanding.
  • Social Control: Research can be misused for discrimination.
  • Responsibility: Researchers should present findings responsibly.