Roman History Overview

Overview

This lecture traces the history of Rome from its legendary foundation, through its rise as a republic and empire, to its transformation in the medieval era, emphasizing Rome's adaptability and ongoing cultural influence.

Legendary Origins of Rome

• Rome’s early history is a mix of legend and myth, notably the story of Aeneas, Romulus, and Remus.
• Romulus founded Rome in 753 BC after killing his brother Remus.
• Early Roman society included diverse people and emphasized openness to outsiders.
• The founding myth reflects Roman values: divine ancestry, openness, civil strife, and anti-tyranny.

The Roman Republic: Formation and Expansion

• The last Etruscan king was overthrown in 509 BC, establishing the Republic (Res Publica).
• Roman government balanced monarchy (consuls), aristocracy (senate), and democracy (assembly).
• Social conflict between Patricians (nobles) and Plebeians (commoners) gradually led to political equality.
• Rome’s doctrine of "Expanding Defense" justified continual territorial expansion as self-defense.
• Rome conquered Italy through alliances, slow wars, and inclusion of conquered peoples.

Rome’s Mediterranean Conquests

• Pyrrhic Wars with Greece introduced the concept of a "Pyrrhic Victory" (costly win).
• Punic Wars with Carthage (esp. Hannibal) established Rome as the main Mediterranean power.
• Conquests brought wealth but also social tension and reliance on slave labor.

Republic in Crisis: Social and Civil Wars

• The Gracchi brothers’ reforms and deaths marked the start of political violence and instability.
• Patron-client relationships and military loyalties undermined traditional republican institutions.
• Growing factionalism led to civil wars between Marius and Sulla.
• Julius Caesar rose through alliances, broke norms, became dictator, and was assassinated in 44 BC.

Transition to Empire

• Power vacuum after Caesar’s death led to the Second Triumvirate (Octavian, Antony, Lepidus).
• Octavian (Augustus) defeated Antony and Cleopatra, becoming Rome’s first emperor in 27 BC.
• Augustus preserved republican forms but held real power; promoted public works and Roman identity.

The Roman Empire: Structure and Culture

• The empire enjoyed the Pax Romana—200 years of relative peace and prosperity.
• Public works (roads, aqueducts, Colosseum) showcased Roman engineering and imperial power.
• Slavery was central to society and economy.
• Romanization involved mixing local cultures with Roman customs; Christianity gradually spread.

Crisis, Division, and Transformation

• The third century saw instability, economic crisis, invasions, and temporary breakaway states.
• Diocletian reformed the empire with the Tetrarchy (rule by four), stabilizing the state.
• Constantine legalized Christianity, founded Constantinople, and the empire split East and West permanently.

Fall of the Western Empire and Survival of the East

• Barbarian migrations and internal weakness led to the Western Empire’s collapse in 476 AD.
• The Eastern Empire (Byzantium) persisted, adapting Roman institutions and embracing Christianity.
• Byzantium survived many crises, preserved Greek and Roman knowledge, and influenced later cultures.

Medieval and Lasting Legacy

• Rome became the religious center of western Christianity (Papacy and Pilgrimage).
• Latin evolved into Romance languages; Roman law and culture shaped Europe.
• Byzantium’s fall (1453 AD) marked the end of the Roman state, but its legacy endured in Europe, the Church, and beyond.

Key Terms & Definitions

• SPQR — Senātus Populusque Rōmānus, "The Senate and People of Rome," symbolizing Rome's civic identity.
• Patricians — Roman aristocratic class.
• Plebeians — Commoner class in Rome.
• Consul — One of two annually elected chief magistrates in the Republic.
• Triumvirate — Political alliance of three men; notable examples include Caesar, Pompey, Crassus and later Octavian, Antony, Lepidus.
• Pax Romana — "Roman Peace," era of stability and prosperity in the empire.
• Tetrarchy — Division of imperial power among four rulers under Diocletian.

Action Items / Next Steps

• Review diagrams of Roman government structure and imperial maps.
• Read selected passages from Livy, Suetonius, and primary sources on the Gracchi, Caesar, and Augustus.
• Summarize the causes and effects of the Punic Wars and the Crisis of the Third Century.