Biology End-of-Course Exam Review

Organic Compounds

• Matter: Composed of elements, which are made of atoms.
• Organic Compounds: Contain carbon; essential for life.
  • Categories:
    • Nucleic Acids: Monomers are nucleotides.
    • Proteins: Monomers are amino acids.
    • Carbohydrates: Monomers are monosaccharides.
    • Lipids: Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol.
  • Mnemonic: CLPN (Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids)
  • Enzymes: A type of protein, act as biological catalysts.

Water Properties

• Universal Solvent: Polar, partially positive and negative.
• Properties:
  • Cohesion: Water attracted to itself.
  • Adhesion: Water attracted to other substances.
  • Capillary Action: Cohesion and adhesion working together.
  • Surface Tension: Allows insects like strider bugs to float.

Cell Structure

• Basic Unit of Life: All living things are made of cells.
• Cell Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer.
• Cell Types:
  • Eukaryotic: Have nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria).
  • Prokaryotic: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
  • Plant Cells: Have cell wall, chloroplasts, and large vacuoles.
  • Animal Cells: No cell wall, smaller vacuoles.

Membrane Transport

• Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration.
• Facilitated Diffusion: Uses protein channels.
• Active Transport: Movement against concentration gradient, requires ATP.
• Osmosis: Water movement across a membrane.
  • Isotonic: Equal solute concentration.
  • Hypotonic: Higher water concentration outside.
  • Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside.

Enzymes

• Function: Catalysts for biological reactions.
• Influences: Temperature and pH affect enzyme activity.

Cellular Respiration

• Process: Converts glucose and oxygen into ATP.
• Occurs in Mitochondria: Produces CO2 and water as byproducts.
• Photosynthesis: Converts sunlight into glucose and oxygen.
• Fermentation: Anaerobic respiration, less efficient than cellular respiration.

DNA and Genetics

• DNA Structure: Double helix, bases A, T, G, C.
• Replication: Semi-conservative, occurs during cell cycle.
• Protein Synthesis:
  • Transcription: DNA to mRNA in the nucleus.
  • Translation: mRNA to protein in ribosome.
• Genetics:
  • Gregor Mendel's Laws: Dominant and recessive alleles.
  • Punnett Squares: Predict genetic outcomes.

Evolution and Biodiversity

• Natural Selection: Survival of the fittest.
• Adaptations: Traits that improve survival.
• Evidence for Evolution:
  • Fossil records, DNA analysis, embryology.
• Phylogenetic Trees: Show evolutionary relationships.

Ecology

• Levels of Organization: From molecules to biosphere.
• Biodiversity: Important for ecosystem resilience.
• Food Chains and Webs:
  • Producers and consumers; energy loss at each trophic level.
• Biogeochemical Cycles: Carbon cycles through photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion.

Environmental Science

• Human Impact: Deforestation, pollution, global warming.
• Conservation: Recycling, reducing resource use, habitat protection.

This review covers the critical topics for a biology exam. Ensure to dive deeper into each topic for comprehensive understanding. Best of luck on your exam!