AP Psychology Ultimate Guide Notes

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

Techniques to Learn About Structure and Function

• Paul Broca: Discovered Broca's area, linking damage there to expressive aphasia.
• Carl Wernicke: Identified Wernicke's area, linked to receptive aphasia.
• Lesions: Surgical removal or destruction of brain tissue to study function loss.
• Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga: Studied split-brain patients, revealing brain lateralization.
• Imaging Techniques:
  • CAT/CT: X-rays create 2D brain images.
  • MRI: Uses magnetic fields for high-resolution images.

Measuring Brain Function

• EEG: Traces brain activity via electrodes, measures electrical activity.
• PET: Displays metabolic brain activity.
• fMRI: Captures brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygen.
• MEG/MSI: Detects magnetic fields from brain activity.

Organization of the Nervous System

• Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord.
• Peripheral Nervous System: Somatic (voluntary control) and autonomic (involuntary control) systems.
  • Sympathetic: Activates fight or flight response.
  • Parasympathetic: Restores the body to a calm state.

The Brain

• Triune Brain Model:
  • Reptilian Brain: Brainstem functions.
  • Old Mammalian Brain: Limbic system, emotional behavior.
  • New Mammalian Brain (Neocortex): Higher-order thinking.
• Localization and Lateralization: Different brain regions specialize in specific functions.
• Plasticity: Brain's ability to reorganize after damage.

Structure and Function of the Neuron

• Neuron Components: Glial cells, cell body, dendrites, axon, terminal buttons.
• Neurotransmitters:
  • Dopamine: Movement and alertness.
  • Serotonin: Mood and emotion.
  • GABA: Inhibits neuron firing.

Reflex Action

• Reflex Arc: Pathway for reflexes involving sensory, interneurons, and motor neurons.

The Endocrine System

• Hormone-producing glands: Pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads.

Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology

• Nature vs. Nurture Controversy: Heredity vs. environment's impact on behavior.
• Genetics and Behavior: Role of genes in mental ability, temperament, personality.
• Transmission of Hereditary Characteristics: Genes, chromosomes, genetic disorders.

Unit 2: Cognition

2.1 Perception

• Influenced by psychological state, past experiences, cultural background.

2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making

• Concepts include cognitive biases, heuristics, and memory types.

2.3 Introduction to Memory

• Types: Sensory, short-term, long-term, working memory.

2.4 Encoding Memories

• Process of transforming sensory input into a storable format.

2.5 Storing Memories

• Involves maintaining information for future retrieval.

2.6 Retrieving Memories

• Accessing stored information using cues and context.

Unit 3: Development and Learning

Key Concepts and Theories

• Cognitive Development: Piaget's stages, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.
• Social and Emotional Development: Attachment theory, Erikson's psychosocial theory.
• Language Acquisition: Stages from babbling to complex speech.
• Learning Processes: Classical and operant conditioning, observational learning.

3.1 Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology

• Nature vs. nurture, stability vs. change, continuous vs. discontinuous development.

3.2 Physical Development Across the Lifespan

• Prenatal influences, critical periods, puberty, age-related changes.

3.3 Gender and Sexual Orientation

• Biological, psychological, and social influences on identity.

3.4 Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan

• Piaget and Vygotsky's theories, information processing.

3.5 Communication and Language Development

• Theories of language acquisition, critical period hypothesis.

3.6 Social and Emotional Development Across the Lifespan

• Attachment, emotional regulation, Erikson's stages.

3.7 Classical Conditioning

• Key concepts: UCS, UCR, CS, CR. Pavlov's experiment.

3.8 Operant Conditioning

• Skinner's experiments, reinforcement types, behavior modification.

3.9 Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning

• Observational learning, cognitive processes, neurological basis.

Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception

• Internal vs. external attributions, biases like self-serving and fundamental attribution error.

4.2 Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

• Stereotypes, implicit attitudes, cognitive dissonance.

4.3: Psychology of Social Institutions

• Role and influence of institutions like family, education, religion.

4.4: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality

• Freud's psychodynamic theory, humanistic approaches by Rogers and Maslow.

4.5: Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality

• Bandura's reciprocal determinism, Big Five personality traits.

4.6: Motivation

• Theories of motivation, Maslow's hierarchy, intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation.

4.7: Emotion

• Components and theories of emotion, emotion regulation, cultural differences.

Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health

1. Stress and Health

• Stressors: daily hassles, major life events, catastrophes.
• Cognitive appraisal and stress response (GAS model).

2. Psychological Disorders

• Types include anxiety, mood, psychotic, and eating disorders.

3. Treatment of Psychological Disorders

• Psychotherapy approaches like CBT and humanistic therapy.
• Biomedical therapies.

4. Mind-Body Connection

• Psychoneuroimmunology, lifestyle impacts on health.

5. Disorders Related to Physical Health

• Substance use, addiction, chronic illness impacts on mental health.