Chapter 2, Section 2: Perceiving Others

Learning Objectives

1. Differentiate between internal and external attributions.
2. Explain two common perceptual errors: the fundamental attribution error and the self-serving bias.
3. Discuss the primacy and recency effects relating to first and last impressions.
4. Discuss how physical and environmental factors influence perception.
5. Explain the horn and halo effects.
6. Recognize the roles that culture and personality play in the perception of others.

Quick Judgments and First Impressions

• Research indicates people can predict interactions based on initial impressions.
• Judgments of competence from brief exposure can influence election outcomes.
• Principles apply to how we perceive others and how they perceive us.
• Importance of the perception process: selecting, organizing, interpreting.

Attribution and Interpretation

• Attribution: Explaining people's behavior through internal (personality) or external (situational) factors.
  • Internal Attributions: Personality traits are stable; harder to change.
  • External Attributions: Situational factors are temporary.
• Errors in Attribution:
  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal causes for others' behaviors.
  • Self-Serving Bias: Attributing our successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Impressions and Interpretation

• First and Last Impressions:
  • Primacy Effect: More value on initial information about a person.
  • Recency Effect: More weight on recent impressions over earlier ones.
• Self-fulfilling prophecies can occur through negative cycles of interaction.

Physical and Environmental Influences

• Appearance and Style: Clothing, grooming, and body features influence perceptions.
  • Attractiveness often linked with positive traits.
• Environmental Cues: Material objects and arrangement of spaces influence perception.
  • Examples include office decor or room setup.

Halo and Horn Effects

• Halo Effect: Positive first impressions lead to continued positive perceptions.
• Horn Effect: Negative first impressions lead to continued negative perceptions.

Culture, Personality, and Perception

• Cultural Influences:
  • Cultural identities shape perception through shared beliefs and values.
  • Differences in sensory reactions: sight, sound, touch, taste, smell.
  • Influence of cultural norms on complex concepts like marriage and privacy.
• Personality Influences:
  • Personality traits affect perception of self and others.
  • Big Five Personality Traits: Extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness.
• Assumed Similarity: Tendency to perceive others as similar to ourselves.

Key Takeaways

• Attributions: Connect behaviors to internal characteristics (traits) or external factors (situations).
• Perceptual Errors:
  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Over-attribute behaviors to internal causes.
  • Self-Serving Bias: Attribute personal successes to internal factors, failures to external.
• Impressions: First and last impressions are powerful.
  • Primacy Effect: More importance on initial impressions.
  • Recency Effect: More importance on recent impressions.
• Perceptual Effects:
  • Halo Effect: Positive first impressions lead to positive perceptions.
  • Horn Effect: Negative first impressions lead to negative perceptions.
• Cultural and Personality Influences: Affect perceptions of basic sensory information and larger concepts.
• Personality Traits: Influence perception and interactions with others.