Overview of Criminological Theories

Learning Theories * Attempt to explain how and why individuals learn from significant others to engage in criminal rather than conventional behaviors. Control Theories * Emphasize personal or socialization factors that prevent individuals from engaging in selfish antisocial behavior. Tabula Rosa * Blank state Differential Association Theory * Introduced by Sutherland in the 1930s * A theoretical framework that explained how criminal values could be culturally transmitted to individuals from their significant other * People become delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law. * If a person is receiving more information is pro-crime than anticrime the person will inevitably engage in criminal activity.y * Sutherland claimed that such learning came from interactions with significant others and not from television, radio, or medical media Sutherland believes that if people receive more pro-crime information, that is the way they will. act There is no allowance for free will in this model Classical Conditioning Learning Theory * Sutherland, during his era, used the dominant psychological theory of learning as a basis of his theory - which was classical conditioning. * Classical Conditioning - Developed by Ivan Pavlov - assumes that animals as well as people learn through associations between stimuli and responses. Ex. * If a dog sees meat he will always salivate, if a bell is always rung at the same time the dog is presented with meat, then the dog will begin to associate a previous negative stimuli with a positive stimuli. * Classical Conditioning Critics - suggest that some offenders commit an offense first before they learn the activity from anyone .Differential Reinforcement Theory * 1965 C.R. Jeffery - Critiqued Sutherlands differential association theory * He wanted Sutherland to pay attention to the updated social psychology of learning which included operant conditioning * Very similar to rational choice theory because of the focus on reinforcement and punishment that occurs after the individual offends Operant Conditioning * How behavior is influenced by reinforcement and punishment * Positive reinforcement is when for example if you clean your room I will give you 5 bucks. * Negative reinforcement is when I scream at you until you’re done cleaning your room and then I stop. * Positive punishment is when behavior is weakened or discouraged through adverse stimuli like spanking a kid for doing something wrong * Negative punishment is when there is no reward. The kid breaks curfew so now the kid has no car Bandura’s Theory of Modeling and Imitation * He said that people learn from attitudes and behaviors by seeing what other people do and copying them Monkey see and Monkey do type theory * Children are mostly affected by seeing older adults and copying them Control Theories * Assume that people would naturally commit crimes if it weren’t for restraints on their selfish tendencies * Social control perspectives of criminal behavior - assume that there is some form of basic human nature and that all humans exhibit antisocial behavior * Control theories do not necessarily assume people are predisposed towards crime * Control theory suggests without appropriate socialization people act on their preprogrammed tendency toward crime and deviance Early Control Theories of Human Behavior * Thomas Hobbes - Perhaps the earliest example of Hobbes suggests that the natural state of humanity is one of selfishness and self-centredness to the point of constant choice and that all individuals are inherently disposed to take advantage of others for their well-being * Durkhiem’s Idea of Awaknes Reflection and Collective Consciousness * Said humans have no internal controls to let them know where they are fulfilled * Durkhiems awakened reflection is collectively known as greed * Alberts Reis’s Control Theory * Delinquency was a consequence of weak ego or superego controls among juvenile Probationers * Family was the primary source in which deviant predispositions were discouraged * The family environment is essential for emotional bonds Jackson Toby's Concept of Stake in Conformity * The extent to which individual has invested in conventional society * How much a person is willing to risk if they violate the law Nye’s Control Theory * Ivan Nye * Proposed a relatively comprehensive control theory that places a strong focus on the family * Nye claimed that there was not a significant positive force that caused delinquency because such antisocial tendencies are universal and would be found in virtually everyone if not for certain controls usually found in the home * Too much freedom or too much control would promote the most delinquent * IT would take a health balance of both to prevent wrongdoing * Nye’s three primary components of control * Internal control - formed through social interaction - helps develop a conscience * Direct Control - constraints on individuals' propensities to commit deviant acts - jail, ridicule * Indirect Control - occurs when individuals are sternly attached to their early caregivers. For most people, this is their parents Reckless’s Containment Theory * Containment Theory - Walter Reckless - emphasizes both inner and outer containment(internal and external) * Said people can be pushed into delinquency by their social environment, such as a lack of opportunities for education or employment * Brain disorders or risk-taking personalities could push someone to commit criminal behavior. * Delinquent peers, watching too much TV, etc, could push people to commit crimes. * Pushes and pulls toward crime could be enough to force criminal activity unless the person is sufficiently contained or controlled. * This containment should be both internal and external * Internal - Person's sense of self-belief - helps resist temptations - the ability to internalize societal norms * External - schools, church, etc. Modern social Contorl theroies Matza’s Drift theroies * The theory of drift, or drift theory, claims that individuals offend at certain times in their lives when social control such as parental supervision is weakened. * Matza suggests there is a degree of determinism, and inhuman behavior, but also a significant amount of free will. * Suggested that as kids get older, parents supervise their children less, and because the youth does not have many responsibilities, they experiment with deviance - meaning when supervision is absent and ties are minimal, people will drift in and out of delinquency Neutralization Theory * Sykes and Matza - Techniques of neutralization and Matza’s Drift theory * They thought that social learning influences delinquent behavior - asserted that most criminals hold conventional beliefs and values - most criminals are partially committed to the dominant social order * Said youths are not immersed in a subculture that is committed to either extreme Techniques of Neutralization * Denial of responsibility - blame peers for behavior * Denial of Injury - no one was hurt - stealing from a store - no direct victim * Denial of Victim 0 offenders see themselves as avengers and the victims as wrongdoers - someone dissed themselves. * Condemnation of the Condemners - condolences are hypocrites - police speed so everyone should be entitled to speed * Appeal to Higher Loyalty - crimes are above the law because they serve a higher power. Hirschis’s Social Bonding Theory * The more strongly a person is bonded to conventional society, the less prone to engage in a crime he or she will do * The stronger the social bond the lower the likelihood that an individual will commit a criminal offense General Theory of Crime * Hrishci and Gottfredson - Theory of low self-control * Referred to as the general theory of crime * Accepted as one of the most valid theories of crime * Assumes individuals are born predisposed toward selfish - self-centered activities and that only effective child-rearing practices and socializations create self-control * Without such adequate social and reduction of criminal opportunities individuals will follow their natural tendencies to become selfish predators CHAPTER 7: Labeling and Social Reaction Theory * Referred to as labeling theory is primarily concerned with how individuals' identities are highly influenced by the way that society or authorities tend to categorize them as offenders. * With this labeling - an offender becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy * Assumes people who are constantly labeled will one day fit the label * Policies that become popular during this time (1960’s - 70’s) * Diversion, Decriminalization, Deinstitutionalization Labeling Theory * Based on seminal work by Geroge Mead and Charles Cooley * Placed emphasizes the importance of the extreme ways that individuals react to and are influenced by the social reaction to their roles and behaviors * Mead said that a person's sense of self is constantly constructed and reconstructed through various social interactions a person has daily * Every person is constantly aware of how he or she is judged by others through social interactions * Mainstream theorists claim that certain demographic factors, such as social class and the neighborhood where certain offenses took place may make it more likely that the offender will be caught and labeled by authorities - Could be true since some police strategies target areas or neighborhoods with high rates of crime - This also leads to discussions about the disproportionate rate at which members of the lower class and * Frank Tannenbaum - dramatization of evil - that occurs when youth are arrested and charged with their first offense * Edwin Lemert - contributed to how labeling affects criminality among those who are labeled - said youths commit primary deviance which is not serious (nonviolet) and not frequent but are caught by police and then labeled. * This stigma makes them think of themselves as offenders and forces them to associate with other offenders. * Results in secondary deviance - which is more serious (often violent) and far more frequent * Lemert Model Primary deviance - caught and labeled - secondary deviance Marxist Theories of Crime * Based on the writings of Marx * Marxist theories of crime focus on the fact that people in the lower classes(poor) are arrested and charged with crimes at a disproportionate rate. * Emphasizes the effects of a capitalistic society on how justice is administered * Marx said that the law is the tool by which the ruling class controls the lower class and keeps them in a disadvantageous position. -Law is used as a mechanism so the middle class or upper class can maintain its dominance over the lower class - Law is used to protect the economic interest of the ruling class and to prevent the lower class from gaining access to financial resources - Marxist theories propose that economic power can be translated into legal or political power and account for the general disempowerment of the majority * William Bonger * Early theories that applied the Marxist theory of crime * Emphasized the relationship between economy and crime but did not believe simply being poor would cause criminal activity * Siad capitalism caused a difference in the way individual felt about society and their place in it * Said capitalism caused selfishness and greed - caused more competition among people for goods and resources which leads to more individualism and egoistic tendencies that promote a strong focus on self-interest at the expense of societal well-being * Richard Quinney Additionally Bonger suggests that even the crimes committed by the elite are caused by capitalism. - These acts are crimes of “domination and repression” committed by the elite to keep the lower classes down or to protect their property, wealth, and power \ Conflict Theories of Crime * Conflict theories assume that all societies are constantly changing and that this dynamic process inevitably leads to conflict in many different ways. Policy Implications * Diversion * Regarding social reaction and labeling theory * Is now commonly used to try to get cased out of the formal justice system as soon as possible * Decriminalization * Reducing the criminality of certain illegal activities * Deinstitutionalization * In early 1970 federal laws were passed that ordered all youth-status offenders to be removed from incarceration facilities * The purpose is to keep relatively minor often first-time offenders from experiencing the ordeal of incarceration * Overall, these types of policies which are seen as “hands off” are less favorable by those who desire to be seen as hard on criminal offenders CHAPTER 8 - Social Disorganization Theory * Ecological School and the Chicago School of Criminology * One of the most valid concepts because of it propositions can be readily applied to the growth and evolution of nearly all cities around the world * Sometimes referred to as the ecological school or the theory of social disorganization * Robert Park - proposed that much of human behavior especially the ways cities grow follow basic principles of ecology * Park suggested that similar to Darwinian theory the growth of cities followed a natural pattern and evolution * Utilized symbiosis to explain the dependency of various citizens and units on each other * Suggested that everyone is better off working together cities would contain identifiable clusters which he called natural areas * These natural areas would take on a life or organic unity of their own * To explain, many cities are made up of primarily one ethnic group * Applying other ecological principles some areas may invade or dominate adjacent areas * Park suggested that similar thighs happen in human cities as some areas instance other zones - previously dominant areas people wl CHAPTER 9 : Durkheim and the concept of anomie * Durkheim was perhaps the most influential theorist on modern structural perspectives on criminality. * His doctoral dissertation(1893) at the University of Paris's first sociological dissertation at that institution was a general model of societal development largely based on economic and labor distributions in which societies are seen as evolving from simplistic mechanic society towards a multilayered organic society. * Mechanical Societies - primitive - members form the same functions such as hunting and gathering. * This leads to strong uniformity in values called collective conscience, which is the degree everyone in society thinks alike. * Therefore these similar norms and values among the people in these primitive mechanical societies create mechanical solidarity. * When societies progress towards a more organic society in the industrial age, the distribution of labor becomes more highly specified. * Organic solidarity arises when people tend to depend on other groups because of the highly specified division of labor and laws that have a primary function of regulating interactions and maintaining solidarity among the groups. * Durkheim suggests that in this situation the collective conscience is weak because there is little agreement on moral beliefs or opinions and the preexisting solidarity among the members is breaking down and bonds are weakened - creating antisocial behavior. * Durkheim said that all acts provide a specific function in a society, even crime. * Crime - defines the moral boundaries in society. * Few people even know what is against societal law until they see someone punished for acts which reinforces their understanding of the rules and what happens if you break them. * Identification of rule breakers creates a bond among the other people and this bond is why crime is necessary. * Durkheim stated, that, unlike animals, humans have no internal mechanism to signal when their needs and desires are satiated, therefore the selfish desires are limitless - the more someone has the more they want. * People are greedy by nature - without something telling them what they need or desire, they will never be content. * Society provides the mechanism for limiting the insatiable appetite by having the sole power to create laws that set tangible limits. Strain Theories * All strain theories show an emphasis on frustration as a factor in crime causation - hence the name strain. * Most do differ in what causes that frustration and the way people cope with stress and anger - they all hold that strain is the primary causal factor in the development of criminality. * Strain theories all trace their origin to Robert Merton’s seminal theoretical framework. * Merton’s Strain Theory - 1930 Merton drew on Durkheim’s idea of anomie - Merton combined Durkheim’s concept and propositions with an emphasis on American culture. Merton’s model became very popular * One of the key assumptions that distinguishes strain theory from Durkheim’s perspective is that Merton altered his version of what anomie means. * Merton focused on the nearly universal socialization of the American Dream in U.S. society. * According to Merton, the socialized image of the goal is material wealth, whereas the socialized concept of the means of achieving the goal is hard work. * Merton thought that nearly everyone was socialized to believe the American Dream no matter what economic class he or she was raised in as a child * Merton pointed out that as all numbers of people rise from the lower class to become materially successful * Therefore, this near-universal socialization of the American Dream, which most people never get to have, causes most of the strain and frustration in American Society. * Most of the strain and frustration were due to the differential emphasis placed on material goals and de-emphasizing the importance of conventional means * Merton said that in an ideal society, there would be equal emphasis on conventional goals and means * However, in most societies, the emphasis is on one more than the other, and America places more emphasis on the goal and not the means * This lack of stability in emphasis between the goal and the means is what Merton called anomie * Durkheim believed that anomie was caused by society transforming itself too fast to maintain its regulatory control over members * Merton said anomie represented too much focus on the goals of wealth in the U.S at the expense of conventional means * Merton said that the lower class eventually learned that the American Dream was a lie or a false illusion * This understanding may take place when people are in their late teens or mid-twenties when the frustration of strain is evident * This is consistent with the age crime peak of offending at approx 17. * People learn that hard work does not always bring forth wealth or material success, therefore some people start using innovative ways to achieve that material wealth without the conventional means * He said that people deal with the limited economic structure of society in different ways and called the “adaptions to strain” * Adaptions to strain: Merton’s Five Adaptions * Conformity - people buy into the conventional goals of society and the conventional means of working hard * Ritualism - they do not pursue the goal of material success because they know they don’t have a realistic chance of obtaining it * However, they do buy into the conventional means because they like their jobs and do not mind making “ends meet” or working hard * Conformists and Ritulaists are low risk for criminal offending * The next three adoptions are more like to be associated with criminal activity * Innovators - desire the conventional goals of material success but are not willing to engage in conventional means - not always criminal - ex…entrepreneurs or athletes who sign big contracts when they are very young * Retreatism - retreatists do not see to achieving the goals of society and do not buy into hard work- isolate to avoid human contact - heavy drug users. * Rebellion - the most complex of the five - rebels buy into the societal goals and means but they do not buy into those currently in place * Criminal by definition because they largely are trying to over through the current societal structure * Ex. founding fathers of the U.S.S * People can represent more than one adaption. * Ex For basketball players conformists play to win by the rules and do not cheat, ritualists play games because they like to play but do not care about winning, innovators will play to win and they will cheat if need be. Retreatists do not like playing and do not care about winning and the rebels dont like the rules of the court so they will play by their own rules * General Strain Theories * 1980 Robert Agnew proposed the General Strain Theory * Provides a model more applicable to the frustration that all people feel in everyday life not just poor people * This theory suggests that all people deal with frustrations in their everyday life * Other strain theories focus on a person's failure to achieve positive valued goals that they have been socialized to * General strain theory also introduces two new levels of strain theory * Presentation of noxious stimuli and removal, of positively valued stimuli * Presentation of noxious stimuli in one's life could cause major stress and frustrations like abusive parents * Removal of positive stimuli most likely the largest form of frustration like loss of a good job * Big picture, General strain theory suggests that these three categories of strain, failure to achieve goals, noxious stimuli, and removal of positive stimuli will lead to stress that results in anger is the primary mediating factor for strain theory * GST proposes that the more strain caused by these three factors the better the chance the person will commit a crime * Agnew suggests that if the individual could cope somehow with the anger in a positive way then they may not participate in criminal activities. CHAPTER 10: Conflict theory Law - Social Control * Conflict theory is the assumption that society is not held together by agreement and consensus on major values * However, it is viewed as groups held together by opposing group interests and efforts * Conflict is seen as an essential social process upon which society depends * Power - is the principal determinate of the outcome of conflict Conflict Theories of Crime * Conflict theories assume that all societies are in a process of constant change and that this dynamic process inevitably creates conflict among various groups * Much conflict is due to the competition to have each group's interest promoted, protected, and often put into law * If groups had the same amount of power and resources battles would take place in negotiations and compromise * However, groups tend to differ significantly Law - Social Control * The most powerful groups control the law - their values are adopted as legal standards for behavior * Members of the less powerful group - continue to act according to their internal group norms - which means violating the law * Conflict theory explains both law and criminal justice - and why people commit criminal/deviant behavior * Social control - is a system that rules the way people should and should not behave through formal and informal mechanisms * Informal social controls - family, friend groups, churches, etc. * Formal social control - law and criminal justice system - enforced by legally authorized agents * Social control relies on Socialization * Socialization is the process of teaching and learning values, norms, and customs through examples and positive/negative social sanctions * Ex. Conventional morality and values are acquired through socialization within the family, church, etc. * Law - relies primarily on the external application of formal negative sanctions…punishment * Law - are rules enforced by the state by an authority that recognizes no higher authority * Two views towards law * Substantive law on the books and the law in action * Substantive law - viewed as developed out of the widespread normative -consensus in society - reflects the common interests of society as a whole * Law in action - law is a product of conflict between group interests and the exercise of power in society * The rationality of law is based on adherence to the rule of law characterized by due process and fair procedure determined by established legal principles and rules (formal rationality) * rather than on the fairness of the actual outcome of the process judged according to the interests or ideology of particular individuals or groups (substantive rationality). Theories of Law * Consensus theory - views a formal system of law as enforcing and incorporating the norms of society * Mechanical solidarity - members are integrated by common values and beliefs * Organic solidarity - has functional interdependence - law becomes harsher - incarceration * Rationality of Law * Based on adherence to the rule of law - characterized by due process and fair procedure - established by legal principle (formal rationality) * Rather than the fairness of the outcome of the process judged according to the idealogy of the particular individual or group(substantive rationality) * Functionalist theory * Underscores the consensual norms and values of society and the orderly state of equilibrium and social integration * Assumes law is functioning for the greater public warfare * By orderly disputes, regulating disruptive behavior, and controlling crime - it benefits everyone not just the powerful * Law serves as a symbolic function to condemn behavior regardless if it deters it or not Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior * Conflict theory views the whole process of lawmaking, lawbreaking, and enforcement in the conflict and power differentials among social, economic, and political interest groups 4 Conflict Theories of Crime - Key Actors * Thorsten Sellin - Key theorists in pluralistic perspective * Applied Marxist and conflict perspective to study the state of cultural diversity in industrial societies * Claimed that separate cultures will diverge from a unitary, mainstream set of norms and values held by the dominant group in society * Those who break off will establish their norms Conflict Theories of Crime * When laws are enacted they will only reflect the interest of the dominant group * Sellin referred to this as the border culture conflict * This conflict of values from the interaction of different cultures causes a backlash by the weaker groups who tend to act defiantly or defensively * Sellin suggests that the more unequal the balance of power the worse the conflict will be * George Vold * Key conflict theorist - pluralistic perspective * Claimed that people are naturally social and inevitably form groups out of shared needs, values, and interests * Various groups compete with each other for power and to promote their values and interests each competes for control over political processes, including the power to create laws that can suppress other groups * Austin Turk * Argued that competition for power among various groups in society is the primary cause of crime * Said that certain levels of conflict between groups are beneficial because they may remind citizens to consider if the conventional standards can be improved * Similar to Emile Durkheim’s proposition that a certain level of crime is healthy for society - defines moral boundaries * One thing that distinguishes Turk from other theories is that he saw conflict among various components of the criminal justice system * Ex…police are often at odds with courts - tension from those who should be on the same side Chapter 11: Marxist Theory * Endorses a power-elite model of society * Suggests that social economics and politics are in the hands of a small ruling class called late-stage capitalism * Late-stage capitalism - term given to highly industrially developed democracies * Capitalism - (in Marxist theory) is a two-class system composed of the ruling class owning the means of production (bourgeoisie) and the proletariat (workers who only have their labor to sell) * Capitalist monopoly is the means of production allowing them to control the political state * This political power is used to manipulate the legal and criminal justice system * Repressed by the system - workers have no power to reverse their oppression * This will remain constant until they organize a revolution * Ex. Found in Quinney Marxist Theories of Crime * Richard Quinney * Added Bonger suggests that even the crimes committed by the elite are caused by capitalism * These acts are crimes of “domination and repression” committed by the elite to keep the lower classes down or to protect their property, wealth, and power * Ex. White collar crimes, which involve raising profits or incomes - result in losses to relatively lower-income clients or customers * Based on the writings of Marx * Marxist theories of crimes focus on the fact that people from the lower classes (poor) are arrested and charged with crimes at a disproportionate rate * Emphasizes the effects of a capitalistic society on how justice is administered * Describes how society is divided by money and power * Marx said - the law is the tool by which the ruling class controls the lower class and keeps them in a disadvantaged position * Law is used as a mechanism so the middle or upper class can maintain its dominance over the lower class * Law is used to protect the economic interest of the ruling class and to prevent the lower class from gaining access to financial resources * Marxist theories propose that economic power can be translated into legal or political power and account for the general disempowerment of the majority * Willem Bonger * Early theorist who applied Marxist theory to crime * Emphasized the relationship between economy and crime but did not believe simply being poor would cause criminal activity * Said capitalism caused a difference in the way individuals felt about society and their place in it * Said capitalism caused selfishness and greed - caused more competition among people for goods and resources which leads to more individualism and egoistic tendencies that promote a strong focus on self-interest at the expense of societal well-being * Said this strong focus is what caused criminal behavior * Also stressed cultural differences, crime can be normal, and adaptive response to social and economic problems Chapter 12: Critical Theory Marx and communism * The idea of economics as a primary factor in antisocial behavior can be traced back to Karl Marx * His thought has led other theorists to contemplate the relationship between economic conditions and crime * Marx discussed how in Capitalism the owners of the means of production paid low wages to maximize their profits as the workers expense * Ex. Unsafe working conditions Critical Theory * Critical theory describes and critiques the social structure * It also actively seeks solutions to the problems of crime and criminal justice * According to critical theory, the definitions of crime and justice are located within a social system that is based on and perpetuates social inequality * Ex. Slavery and the legal apparatus surrounding it * Ex. To perpetuate this social order, slave laws defined the rights of the owners and the role of the enslaved, those who broke the law often faced criminal penalties * Slave owners wrote the law to benefit themselves * If a slave broke the law, it was a problem with the slaves, not the law * Society’s idea of justice was deeply rooted in social inequality * It took the Civil War to dislodge the idea of slavery being just * This is evidence of how difficult it is to alter social paradigms and change individuals' cherished beliefs about their society Feminist Criminology * Set of theories that maintain that gender inequality is at the root of offenses in which female persons are victims or offenders * In a patriarchal society - “society controlled by men” - crime is one of the most patriarchal institutions * Because of strides made in gender equality, women can now be found at every level of the criminal justice system…from judges to criminals Peacemaking Criminology * Considers the social and personal effects of crime as a whole * Considers the offender and victim * Also, it considers the social structures that accept, enable, and encourage crime * Applied to the issues of crime: * Personal level, Interpersonal level, Institutional level, Global Level * Personal level - solve personal problems before external solutions to crime * Interpersonal level - Use manners, politeness, and civility to accomplish goals instead of force and intimidation * Institutional/societal level - structural issues may lead to crime. Gun control laws * Global level - looks at the broad social conditions that enable or encourage the practice of smuggling - advocates for improving the economy of struggling countries so the need for smuggling is no more Cultural Criminology * Examines how social ideas, values, and the media reflect and produce antisocial behavior * Issues - Modeling police after the military, images, and symbols used by graffiti writers * Adopts the perspective to better understand how crime is culturally supported or culturally discourse by everyday social structures Postmodern Criminology * Looks at how language and traditional ideas affect how we define and perceive crime, the law, and society * Postmodern thought…explains how we construct our perceptions of the world * Language - communicates ideas in many ways…context, syntax, etc… * Three areas: * Language - courtroom or prison language * Partial knowledge - In many scenarios in police/citizen interactions, both parties are working on partial knowledge. Misunderstanding could have tragic effects on police, suspects, and victims * Deconstruction - examining the rules and regulations by questioning traditional assumptions about certainty, meaning, and truth. “Critical Race Theory” * Set of propositions suggesting that racial inequality is so ingrained in society that it is propagated through legal and social discourse * Proposes Three Basic Principles: * Eliminate racism by revealing how deeply ingrained it is within American culture * Value of storytelling - uses personal narrative to allow oppressed groups to speak for their own experiences * Critique of liberalism - traditional liberal perspectives are not radical enough to bring about the fundamental changes necessary for equality and justice Chapter 13: Feminist Theories Feminist Theories of Crime * Feminist criminology evolved when various assumptions and stereotypes about women in criminal justice were being questioned * The questions included women as offenders and victims * Some thoughts included things such as that females commit serious violence less than men, if we could better explain this then maybe we could reduce male violence * When the Marxist theories of crime were becoming popular in the early 70’s the feminist perspective began to receive attention * The feminist School of Criminology * It began largely as a reaction to the lack of rational theorizing about why females commit crimes and why they tend to be treated far differently by the criminal justice system * Before 1970s * Theories explaining why females commit crimes were based on false stereotypes * To understand the different perspectives you must first understand a few key terms that will be associated with the perspectives, such as chivalry, paternalism, patriarchy Key Terms - Feminist Perspective * Chivalry * Behaviors and attitudes toward specific individuals that treat them as though they are on a pedestal * Chivalrous behavior is more complex than just preferential treatment * It’s more like a bartering system where men hold more power over women * Historically, some women of certain social classes and racial backgrounds were seen as more worthy of chivalrous treatment * Paternalism * Denotes that women need to be protected for their good * Implies independence for men and dependence for women * Both chivalry and paternalism fsuggest that women need protection because they are weak and helpless - which can lead to various types of control * Patriarchy * The Latin word pater - refers to the role of the father * Patriarchal societies exclude women from the exercise of political responsibilities * Refers to the subordinate role of women and male dominance * Social, legal, and political climate based on male dominance and hierarchy * The key aspect of idealogy is that women’s nature is biologically, not culturally, determined Types of Feminism * Liberal feminism * Assumes that differences between males and females in offending were due to the lack of opportunities for females in education and employment and that as more females were given such opportunities they would come to resemble males in terms of offending * Also termed mainstream feminism * Founded on political liberalism which holds a positive view of human nature as well as the ideas of liberty, equality, justice, dignity, and individual rights * The main feature of liberal feminism is that women should receive the same treatment and rights as men * Perception - gender inequality is due to women’s blocked opportunities to participate in various aspects of the public sphere, such as education, employment, and political activity * Two types of liberal feminism * Classical * Support limited government and a free market as well as political and legal rights * Facets - freedom of expression, religion, and conscience * Welfare * Favor government involvement in providing citizens - especially underprivileged individuals with housing, education, health care, and social security * The market should be limited through significant taxes and restricted profits * A major criticism of the liberal feminist perspective * Is that it primarily focus on the interest of white, middle-class, heterosexual women * Some argue that the liberal perspective poses men as the criminal yardstick - which results in equating justice with equality and not considering other influential standpoints such as race/ethnicity and social class * Another area where the “equal treatment” doctrine is problematic is in sentencing * Critical Feminism or Radical Feminism * Emphasizes the idea that many societies are based on a state of patriarchy wherein males dominate virtually every aspect of society, including politics, family structure, and the economy * Radical feminism emphasizes the importance of personal feelings, experiences, and relationships * Gender is a system of male dominance and women’s biology is the main cause of patriarchy * Gender inequality is based on men’s need or desire to control women’s sexuality and reproductive potential * The process of gender is based on how boys and men see themselves as superior to and having the right to control girls and women * This further intensified through heterosexual sexuality, as defined by men * Radical feminists maintain that sexism is the first widespread form of human oppression * Two Types of Radical Feminisms * Libertarian * Assert that an exclusively feminine gender identity will most often limit a woman’s development as a full human person * They encourage women to become androgynous individuals who embody good - masculine and good - feminine characteristics * Cultural * Argue that women should be strictly female and feminine they should not try to be like men * Women should emphasize such values and virtues as interdependence, community, connection, sharing, emotion, body, trust, and the absence of hierarchy. * Women should not emphasize such values as independence, autonomy, intellect, domination, etc… * Marxist Feminism * Emphasis on men’s ownership and control of the means of economic production, thus focusing solely on the economic structure * Men control the economic success in our country - virtually every country in the world - this flows from capitalism (economic and political system - controlled by private parties for profit) * Socialist feminism * Moves from focusing on economic structure as the primary detriment for females and instead emphasizing control of reproductive systems * Scoialist Feminism Cont. * This model believes that women should take control of their bodies and their reproductive function to control their criminality * Studies show that women who reproduce more frequently, especially in the inner city, poor environments, tend to offend more often than other females, it appears that other factors mediate these effects * Women who want good or better futures tend to take more precautions against becoming pregnant * This perspective attempts to integrate concepts such as male domination and political-economic relationships * This perspective focuses on gender, class, and racial relation of domination * Two general themes in social feminism * Two System Explanations of women’s oppression1. * Maintain that patriarchy not capitalism, may be a woman's ultimate worst enemy * Interactive system explanations of women - oppression2. * Attempt to illustrate that both capitalism and patriarchy are equal contributors to women's oppression, they are interdependent * Postmodern Feminism * Holds that an understanding of women as a group, even by other women, is impossible because every person's experience is unique * This perspective rejects traditional assumptions about truth and reality and the emphasis is more on the plurality, diversity, and multiplicity of women as distinct from men Chapter 14: Developmental and Life-Course Theories Developmental Theories * Explains the development of criminal behavior over time * Focus on the evolution of individual criminality over time * The onset of offending is when the offender first starts offending * Desistance - is when an individual stops committing a crime * Frequency - refers to how often the individual offends * Intensity - is the degree of seriousness of the offense * Duration - is the length of the individual criminal career * Virtually all studies show an escalation from minor status offending(truancy, underage drinking, etc…) to petty crime(shoplifting, smoking pot) to far more serious criminal activity - robbery and aggravated assault - then murder or rape * Shows that in most cases people begin with relatively minor offenses and progress toward more serious and violent offenses * It is still undetermined when police contact or an arrest becomes “early onset” * Most studies draw the line at 14 - so arrest or contact before this would be considered early onset * Offender frequency - probably the most researched aspect of developmental theory * Referred to as “lambda” = offender frequency * The average frequency of offending by criminals over a years time - varies greatly * Frequency depends on many variables Antidevelopmental Theory Low Self-Control Theory * Hiroshi - proposed a general theory of low self-control as the primary cause of all crime and deviance * This is referred to as the general theory of crime * It assumes that individuals are born predisposed toward selfish, self-centered activities and that only effective child-rearing and socialization can create self-control Sampson and Laubs Developmental Model * In contrast to Gottfredson and Hirshchi's model low self-control * Shows that individuals can change their life trajectories in terms of crime * Shows that events or realizations can occur that alter the frequency or incident of offending to zero at times * To explain: you must consider the dominant life-course model of offending, which is Sampson and Laub’s Developmental Model * They emphasized the importance of certain life events and life changes, which can alter an individual's decision to commit or not commit criminal activity * Strongly emphasize the importance of transitions or events that alter life trajectory such as marriages, employment, etc… * Research has consistently shown that marriage and full-time employment significantly reduce the recidivism rates, in offenders such as California parolees Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy * Adolescence-limited offenders * Make up most of the general public * Those who committed an offence when they were a teenager or young adult * Offending mainly due to peer associations * Life course persistent offenders * A small number of people * Most violent and chronic - commit the vast majority of violent offenders * Neurological problems, disadvantages, and environmental are contributors. * Trajectory * If a person had neurological issues and a disadvantaged environment then that person would have a higher likelihood of being on a trajectory toward criminal activity * This suggests that it is essential to pay attention to what happens in early life * Illegal activities are common in young adults so you should look at what happens before the age of 12 to determine Policy implications * Focus on concerns relating to prenatal and perinatal(immediately before or after birth) stages of life * If policymakers want to affect the early onset of criminal activity they need to increase the care of pregnant mothers * Should it be legally mandated for pregnant mothers who have drug addictions to attend intervention programming? * The policy may suggest assigning special case workers to high-risk infants Chapter 15: Integrating Criminal Theories * Integrated theories * Those with two or more traditional theories are merged into one cohesive model * Integrated theories are an attempt to put together two or more traditional theories of offending to form one unified explanation theory * Some forms of theoretical integration deal with only concepts of proportions * Some forms of theoretical integrations deal with a level of analysis (micro vs macro, or both) The Need for Integrated Theories in Criminology * The idea of combinations may sound good but it has its weaknesses \ * Emphasis on theoretical integrations is a recent development that has evolved due to the need to improve the empirical validity of traditional theories which suffer from a lack of impute from various disciplines * Earlier theories are based on single factory or limited reductionism * Later - theories began to examine various social, biological, and psychological factories * As time progressed - the third stage of criminological theory arose systematically reductionism * Much of the research on criminology was sociological based * Modern Criminologist now acknowledge the limitations of this state of systematic reductionism Detergent forms of integrated theories * Several different types of integrated theories * Typically categorized by the way that their creators propose the theories should fuze together * The three most common forms of propositional theoretical integration(judgment or opinion) meaning synthesis of theories based on their postulates(assumptions of existence, fact, truth, etc…) are: * End-to-end integration - used when theorists expect that one theory will come before or after another in terms of the temporal ordering of causal factors * More developmental because it proposes a certain ordering of the component theories that are being merged * Ex…an integrated theory may claim that most paths toward delinquency and crime have their early roots in the breakdown of social attachments and controls (social bonding theory) but later, the influence of negative peers(differential association) becomes more emphasized * Weak social bond - Negative peer associations - crime * This is considered end-to-end because it conveys the linkage of the theories based on the temporal ordering of two or more theories in their casual timing * Specifically, the breakdown of social bonds would come first, followed * Side by side * Cases are classified by a certain criterion(impulsive or planned) and two or more theories are considered parallel explanations depending on what type of case is being considered * So when the assumptions or target offenses of two or more theories are different, a side-by-side is the most natural way to integrate them * Ex.. low self-control may be used to explain impulsive criminal activity, * Side by side More typical individuals * High self-control - consideration of potential negative consequences - deferred from committing crimes * More impulsive individuals or activities * Low self-control - the desire for immediate gratification - failure to consider consequences - the decision to commit a criminal act * These side-by-side integrations show how two different theories can each be accurate, depending on what type of individual or criminal activity is being considered * ooseem to follow from a conceptually broader theory * Can take on two forms * Theoretical reduction * This happens when it becomes evident that theory A contains more abstract or general assumptions than theory B and therefore the key parts of theory B can be accommodated within the structure of theory A * Ex. General Strain theory subsumed Merton's traditional strain theory * Critics argue that by reducing a theory it loses its unique identity * Theoretical Synthesis * Done by abstracting more general assumptions from theories A and B allowing parts of both theories to be incorporated into a new theory C * Less common because it involves creating a new theory * However, if done correctly it may be the integration that provides the most advancements in theory developmental * It could bring together previous independent models while resulting in new predictions and propositions * Micro, macro, Cross level (both) * Elliot's integrated theory is a micro-level theory * This means that all the component theories that may up the synthesized model refer to the individuals as the unit of analysis * This can help provide information on why individuals behave the way they do but it does not help us understand criminality across groups * Some integrated models include theories from only macro levels * Ex… Robert Brusk’s synthesis of conflict theory and the social disorganization framework * The most complicated integrated theories include both micro and macro * Difficult because it includes bringing together unnatural relationships between individual-based propositions and group-level postulates Examples of Integrated Criminological Theories * Elliots Integrated Model * The first Major perspective proposed attempted to merged various traditionally separate theories of crime * It attempted to merge strain, social disorganization, control, social learning, and differential association-reinforcement perspectives * Thornberry’s interaction theory * Combined social control learning models * States that both of them attempted to explain criminal behavior in a straight forward casual process and are largely targeted toward a certain age population * Stated that the process of social control * Thornberry’s Interaction Theory * Incorporation of 5 elements * Commitment to school * Attachment to parents * Belief in conventional values * Adoption of delinquent values * Association with delinquent peers

Differential Association Theory 
* Introduced by Sutherland in the 1930s
* A theoretical framework that explained how criminal values could be culturally transmitted to individuals from their significant other
* People become delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.
* If a person is receiving more information is pro-crime than anticrime the person will inevitably engage in criminal activity.y 
* Sutherland claimed that such learning came from interactions with significant others and not from television, radio, or medical media 
Sutherland believes that if people receive more pro-crime information, that is the way they will.  act There is no allowance for free will in this model

Classical Conditioning Learning Theory
* Sutherland, during his era, used the dominant psychological theory of learning as a basis of his theory - which was classical conditioning.
* Classical Conditioning - Developed by Ivan Pavlov - assumes that animals as well as people learn through associations between stimuli and responses. 
Ex. 
* If a dog sees meat he will always salivate, if a bell is always rung at the same time the dog is presented with meat, then the dog will begin to associate a previous negative stimuli with a positive stimuli. 
* Classical Conditioning Critics - suggest that some offenders commit an offense first before they learn the activity from anyone
.Differential Reinforcement Theory 
* 1965 C.R. Jeffery - Critiqued Sutherlands differential association theory
* He wanted Sutherland to pay attention to the updated social psychology of learning which included operant conditioning
* Very similar to rational choice theory because of the focus on reinforcement and punishment that occurs after the individual offends
Operant Conditioning 
* How behavior is influenced by reinforcement and punishment 
* Positive reinforcement is when for example if you clean your room I will give you 5 bucks. 
* Negative reinforcement is when I scream at you until you’re done cleaning your room and then I stop. 
* Positive punishment is when behavior is weakened or discouraged through adverse stimuli like spanking a kid for doing something wrong
* Negative punishment is when there is no reward. The kid breaks curfew so now the kid has no car 
Bandura’s Theory of Modeling and Imitation 
* He said that people learn from attitudes and behaviors by seeing what other people do and copying them Monkey see and Monkey do type theory 
* Children are mostly affected by seeing older adults and copying them

Control Theories 
* Assume that people would naturally commit crimes if it weren’t for restraints on their selfish tendencies
* Social control perspectives of criminal behavior - assume that there is some form of basic human nature and that all humans exhibit antisocial behavior
* Control theories do not necessarily assume people are predisposed towards crime 
* Control theory suggests without appropriate socialization people act on their preprogrammed tendency toward crime and deviance 
Early Control Theories of Human Behavior 
* Thomas Hobbes - Perhaps the earliest example of Hobbes suggests that the natural state of humanity is one of selfishness and self-centredness to the point of constant choice and that all individuals are inherently disposed to take advantage of others for their well-being
* Durkhiem’s Idea of Awaknes Reflection and Collective Consciousness 
* Said humans have no internal controls to let them know where they are fulfilled 
* Durkhiems awakened reflection is collectively known as greed
* Alberts Reis’s Control Theory 
* Delinquency was a consequence of weak ego or superego controls among juvenile 
Probationers 
* Family was the primary source in which deviant predispositions were discouraged
* The family environment is essential for emotional bonds 
         Jackson Toby's Concept of Stake in Conformity 
* The extent to which individual has invested in conventional society
* How much a  person is willing to risk if they violate the law
Nye’s Control Theory
* Ivan Nye
* Proposed a relatively comprehensive control theory that places a strong focus on the family 
* Nye claimed that there was not a significant positive force that caused delinquency because such antisocial tendencies are universal and would be found in virtually everyone if not for certain controls usually found in the home 
* Too much freedom or too much control would promote the most delinquent 
* IT would take a health balance of both to prevent wrongdoing
* Nye’s three primary components of control 
* Internal control - formed through social interaction - helps develop a conscience 
* Direct Control - constraints on individuals' propensities to commit deviant acts - jail, ridicule 
* Indirect Control - occurs when individuals are sternly attached to their early caregivers. For most people, this is their parents 
Reckless’s Containment Theory 
* Containment Theory - Walter Reckless - emphasizes both inner and outer containment(internal and external) 
* Said people can be pushed into delinquency by their social environment, such as a lack of opportunities for education or employment 
* Brain disorders or risk-taking personalities could push someone to commit criminal behavior. 
* Delinquent peers, watching too much TV, etc, could push people to commit crimes.
* Pushes and pulls toward crime could be enough to force criminal activity unless the person is sufficiently contained or controlled. 
* This containment should be both internal and external
* Internal - Person's sense of self-belief - helps resist temptations - the ability to internalize societal norms 
* External - schools, church, etc. 
Modern social Contorl theroies Matza’s Drift theroies 
* The theory of drift, or drift theory, claims that individuals offend at certain times in their lives when social control such as parental supervision is weakened. 
* Matza suggests there is a degree of determinism, and inhuman behavior, but also a significant amount of free will. 
* Suggested that as kids get older, parents supervise their children less, and because the youth does not have many responsibilities, they experiment with deviance - meaning when supervision is absent and ties are minimal, people will drift in and out of delinquency
Neutralization Theory 
* Sykes and Matza - Techniques of neutralization and Matza’s Drift theory
* They thought that social learning influences delinquent behavior - asserted that most criminals hold conventional beliefs and values - most criminals are partially committed to the dominant social order
* Said youths are not immersed in a subculture that is committed to either extreme 
        Techniques of Neutralization 
* Denial of responsibility - blame peers for behavior 
* Denial of Injury - no one was hurt - stealing from a store - no direct victim 
* Denial of Victim 0 offenders see themselves as avengers and the victims as wrongdoers - someone dissed themselves.
* Condemnation of the Condemners - condolences are hypocrites - police speed so everyone should be entitled to speed
* Appeal to Higher Loyalty - crimes are above the law because they serve a higher power. 
Hirschis’s Social Bonding Theory 
* The more strongly a person is bonded to conventional society, the less prone to engage in a crime he or she will do
* The stronger the social bond the lower the likelihood that an individual will commit a criminal offense
General Theory of Crime 
* Hrishci and Gottfredson - Theory of low self-control
* Referred to as the general theory of crime 
* Accepted as one of the most valid theories of crime
* Assumes individuals are born predisposed toward selfish - self-centered activities and that only effective child-rearing practices and socializations create self-control
* Without such adequate social and reduction of criminal opportunities individuals will follow their natural tendencies to become selfish predators 
CHAPTER 7: 
Labeling and Social Reaction Theory 
* Referred to as labeling theory is primarily concerned with how individuals' identities are highly influenced by the way that society or authorities tend to categorize them as offenders. 
* With this labeling - an offender becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy 
* Assumes people who are constantly labeled will one day fit the label 
* Policies that become popular during this time (1960’s - 70’s) 
* Diversion, Decriminalization, Deinstitutionalization 
Labeling Theory 
* Based on seminal work by Geroge Mead and Charles Cooley
* Placed emphasizes the importance of the extreme ways that individuals react to and are influenced by the social reaction to their roles and behaviors
* Mead said that a person's sense of self is constantly constructed and reconstructed through various social interactions a person has daily 
* Every person is constantly aware of how he or she is judged by others through social interactions
* Mainstream theorists claim that certain demographic factors, such as social class and the neighborhood where certain offenses took place may make it more likely that the offender will be caught and labeled by authorities 
- Could be true since some police strategies target areas or neighborhoods with high rates of crime 
- This also leads to discussions about the disproportionate rate at which members of the lower class and

* Frank Tannenbaum - dramatization of evil - that occurs when youth are arrested and charged with their first offense 
* Edwin Lemert - contributed to how labeling affects criminality among those who are labeled - said youths commit primary deviance which is not serious (nonviolet) and not frequent but are caught by police and then labeled.
* This stigma makes them think of themselves as offenders and forces them to associate with other offenders.
* Results in secondary deviance - which is more serious (often violent) and far more frequent 
* Lemert Model Primary deviance - caught and labeled - secondary deviance 
Marxist Theories of Crime
* Based on the writings of Marx
* Marxist theories of crime focus on the fact that people in the lower classes(poor) are arrested and charged with crimes at a disproportionate rate.
* Emphasizes the effects of a capitalistic society on how justice is administered 
* Marx said that the law is the tool by which the ruling class controls the lower class and keeps them in a disadvantageous position.
-Law is used as a mechanism so the middle class or upper class can maintain its dominance over the lower class 
- Law is used to protect the economic interest of the ruling class and to prevent the lower class from gaining access to financial resources
- Marxist theories propose that economic power can be translated into legal or political power and account for the general disempowerment of the majority

* William Bonger 
* Early theories that applied the Marxist theory of crime
* Emphasized the relationship between economy and crime but did not believe simply being poor would cause criminal activity
* Siad capitalism caused a difference in the way individual felt about society and their place in it
* Said capitalism caused selfishness and greed - caused more competition among people for goods and resources which leads to more individualism and egoistic tendencies that promote a strong focus on self-interest at the expense of societal well-being 
* Richard Quinney Additionally Bonger suggests that even the crimes committed by the elite are caused by capitalism. 
- These acts are crimes of “domination and repression” committed by the elite to keep the lower classes down or to protect their property, wealth, and power \
Conflict Theories of Crime 
* Conflict theories assume that all societies are constantly changing and that this dynamic process inevitably leads to conflict in many different ways. 
Policy Implications 
* Diversion 
* Regarding social reaction and labeling theory 
* Is now commonly used to try to get cased out of the formal justice system as soon as possible
* Decriminalization 
* Reducing the criminality of certain illegal activities
* Deinstitutionalization 
* In early 1970 federal laws were passed that ordered all youth-status offenders to be removed from incarceration facilities 
* The purpose is to keep relatively minor often first-time offenders from experiencing the ordeal of incarceration
* Overall, these types of policies which are seen as “hands off” are less favorable by those who desire to be seen as hard on criminal offenders
CHAPTER 8 - Social Disorganization Theory 
* Ecological School and the Chicago School of Criminology 
* One of the most valid concepts because of it propositions can be readily applied to the growth and evolution of nearly all cities around the world 
* Sometimes referred to as the ecological school or the theory of social disorganization 
* Robert Park - proposed that much of human behavior especially the ways cities grow follow basic principles of ecology 
* Park suggested that similar to Darwinian theory the growth of cities followed a natural pattern and evolution 
* Utilized symbiosis to explain the dependency of various citizens and units on each other 
* Suggested that everyone is better off working together cities would contain identifiable clusters which he called natural areas 
* These natural areas would take on a life or organic unity of their own 
* To explain, many cities are made up of primarily one ethnic group 
* Applying other ecological principles some areas may invade or dominate adjacent areas
* Park suggested that similar thighs happen in human cities as some areas instance other zones - previously dominant areas people wl
CHAPTER 9 : 
Durkheim and the concept of anomie
* Durkheim was perhaps the most influential theorist on modern structural perspectives on criminality. 
* His doctoral dissertation(1893) at the University of Paris's first sociological dissertation at that institution was a general model of societal development largely based on economic and labor distributions in which societies are seen as evolving from simplistic mechanic society towards a multilayered organic society. 
* Mechanical Societies - primitive - members form the same functions such as hunting and gathering. 
* This leads to strong uniformity in values called collective conscience, which is the degree everyone in society thinks alike. 
* Therefore these similar norms and values among the people in these primitive mechanical societies create mechanical solidarity. 
* When societies progress towards a more organic society in the industrial age, the distribution of labor becomes more highly specified. 
* Organic solidarity arises when people tend to depend on other groups because of the highly specified division of labor and laws that have a primary function of regulating interactions and maintaining solidarity among the groups. 
* Durkheim suggests that in this situation the collective conscience is weak because there is little agreement on moral beliefs or opinions and the preexisting solidarity among the members is breaking down and bonds are weakened - creating antisocial behavior. 
* Durkheim said that all acts provide a specific function in a society, even crime.
* Crime - defines the moral boundaries in society.
* Few people even know what is against societal law until they see someone punished for acts which reinforces their understanding of the rules and what happens if you break them. 
* Identification of rule breakers creates a bond among the other people and this bond is why crime is necessary.
* Durkheim stated, that, unlike animals, humans have no internal mechanism to signal when their needs and desires are satiated, therefore the selfish desires are limitless - the more someone has the more they want.
* People are greedy by nature - without something telling them what they need or desire, they will never be content.
* Society provides the mechanism for limiting the insatiable appetite by having the sole power to create laws that set tangible limits. 
Strain Theories 
* All strain theories show an emphasis on frustration as a factor in crime causation - hence the name strain.
* Most do differ in what causes that frustration and the way people cope with stress and anger - they all hold that strain is the primary causal factor in the development of criminality. 
* Strain theories all trace their origin to Robert Merton’s seminal theoretical framework. 
* Merton’s Strain Theory - 1930 Merton drew on Durkheim’s idea of anomie - Merton combined Durkheim’s concept and propositions with an emphasis on American culture. Merton’s model became very popular
* One of the key assumptions that distinguishes strain theory from Durkheim’s perspective is that Merton altered his version of what anomie means. 
* Merton focused on the nearly universal socialization of the American Dream in U.S. society. 
* According to Merton, the socialized image of the goal is material wealth, whereas the socialized concept of the means of achieving the goal is hard work. 
* Merton thought that nearly everyone was socialized to believe the American Dream no matter what economic class he or she was raised in as a child
* Merton pointed out that as all numbers of people rise from the lower class to become materially successful 
* Therefore, this near-universal socialization of the American Dream, which most people never get to have, causes most of the strain and frustration in American Society. 
* Most of the strain and frustration were due to the differential emphasis placed on material goals and de-emphasizing the importance of conventional means
* Merton said that in an ideal society, there would be equal emphasis on conventional goals and means
* However, in most societies, the emphasis is on one more than the other, and America places more emphasis on the goal and not the means
* This lack of stability in emphasis between the goal and the means is what Merton called anomie
* Durkheim believed that anomie was caused by society transforming itself too fast to maintain its regulatory control over members
* Merton said anomie represented too much focus on the goals of wealth in the U.S at the expense of conventional means
* Merton said that the lower class eventually learned that the American Dream was a lie or a false illusion
* This understanding may take place when people are in their late teens or mid-twenties when the frustration of strain is evident 
* This is consistent with the age crime peak of offending at approx 17. 
* People learn that hard work does not always bring forth wealth or material success, therefore some people start using innovative ways to achieve that material wealth without the conventional means
* He said that people deal with the limited economic structure of society in different ways and called the “adaptions to strain” 
* Adaptions to strain: Merton’s Five Adaptions
* Conformity - people buy into the conventional goals of society and the conventional means of working hard
* Ritualism - they do not pursue the goal of material success because they know they don’t have a realistic chance of obtaining it 
* However, they do buy into the conventional means because they like their jobs and do not mind making “ends meet” or working hard
* Conformists and Ritulaists are low risk for criminal offending
* The next three adoptions are more like to be associated with criminal activity 
* Innovators - desire the conventional goals of material success but are not willing to engage in conventional means - not always criminal - ex…entrepreneurs or athletes who sign big contracts when they are very young
* Retreatism - retreatists do not see to achieving the goals of society and do not buy into hard work- isolate to avoid human contact - heavy drug users. 
* Rebellion - the most complex of the five - rebels buy into the societal goals and means but they do not buy into those currently in place
* Criminal by definition because they largely are trying to over through the current societal structure 
* Ex. founding fathers of the U.S.S
* People can represent more than one adaption. 
* Ex For basketball players conformists play to win by the rules and do not cheat, ritualists play games because they like to play but do not care about winning, innovators will play to win and they will cheat if need be. Retreatists do not like playing and do not care about winning and the rebels dont like the rules of the court so they will play by their own rules
* General Strain Theories 
* 1980 Robert Agnew proposed the General Strain Theory 
* Provides a model more applicable to the frustration that all people feel in everyday life not just poor people 
* This theory suggests that all people deal with frustrations in their everyday life
* Other strain theories focus on a person's failure to achieve positive valued goals that they have been socialized to
* General strain theory also introduces two new levels of strain theory
* Presentation of noxious stimuli and removal, of positively valued stimuli
* Presentation of noxious stimuli in one's life could cause major stress and frustrations like abusive parents
* Removal of positive stimuli most likely the largest form of frustration like loss of a good job 
* Big picture, General strain theory suggests that these three categories of strain, failure to achieve goals, noxious stimuli, and removal of positive stimuli will lead to stress that results in anger is the primary mediating factor for strain theory
* GST proposes that the more strain caused by these three factors the better the chance the person will commit a crime
* Agnew suggests that if the individual could cope somehow with the anger in a positive way then they may not participate in criminal activities. 
CHAPTER 10: Conflict theory 
Law - Social Control
* Conflict theory is the assumption that society is not held together by agreement and consensus on major values 
* However, it is viewed as groups held together by opposing group interests and efforts
* Conflict is seen as an essential social process upon which society depends 
* Power - is the principal determinate of the outcome of conflict
Conflict Theories of Crime
* Conflict theories assume that all societies are in  a process of constant change and that this dynamic process inevitably creates conflict among various groups
* Much conflict is due to the competition to have each group's interest promoted, protected, and often put into law
* If groups had the same amount of power and resources battles would take place in negotiations and compromise
* However, groups tend to differ significantly
Law - Social Control
* The most powerful groups control the law - their values are adopted as legal standards for behavior 
* Members of the less powerful group - continue to act according to their internal group norms - which means violating the law
* Conflict theory explains both law and criminal justice - and why people commit criminal/deviant behavior 
* Social control - is a system that rules the way people should and should not behave through formal and informal mechanisms
* Informal social controls - family, friend groups, churches, etc. 
* Formal social control - law and criminal justice system - enforced by legally authorized agents
* Social control relies on Socialization 
* Socialization is the process of teaching and learning values, norms, and customs through examples and positive/negative social sanctions 
* Ex. Conventional morality and values are acquired through socialization within the family, church, etc. 
* Law - relies primarily on the external application of formal negative sanctions…punishment 
* Law - are rules enforced by the state by an authority that recognizes no higher authority 
* Two views towards law
* Substantive law on the books and the law in action
* Substantive law - viewed as developed out of the widespread normative 
-consensus in society - reflects the common interests of society as a whole 
* Law in action - law is a product of conflict between group interests and the exercise of power in society
* The rationality of law is based on adherence to the rule of law characterized by due process and fair procedure determined by established legal principles and rules (formal rationality)
*  rather than on the fairness of the actual outcome of the process judged according to the interests or ideology of particular individuals or groups (substantive rationality).
Theories of Law
* Consensus theory - views a formal system of law as enforcing and incorporating the norms of society 
* Mechanical solidarity - members are integrated by common values and beliefs 
* Organic solidarity - has functional interdependence - law becomes harsher - incarceration 
* Rationality of Law
* Based on adherence to the rule of law - characterized by due process and fair procedure - established by legal principle (formal rationality) 
* Rather than the fairness of the outcome of the process judged according to the idealogy of the particular individual or group(substantive rationality)
* Functionalist theory
* Underscores the consensual norms and values of society and the orderly state of equilibrium and social integration 
* Assumes law is functioning for the greater public warfare
* By orderly disputes, regulating disruptive behavior, and controlling crime - it benefits everyone not just the powerful 
* Law serves as a symbolic function to condemn behavior regardless if it deters it or not 
Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior 
* Conflict theory views the whole process of lawmaking, lawbreaking, and enforcement in the conflict and power differentials among social, economic, and political interest groups 4
Conflict Theories of Crime - Key Actors
* Thorsten Sellin - Key theorists in pluralistic perspective 
* Applied Marxist and conflict perspective to study the state of cultural diversity in industrial societies 
* Claimed that separate cultures will diverge from a unitary, mainstream set of norms and values held by the dominant group in society 
* Those who break off will establish their norms
Conflict Theories of Crime
* When laws are enacted they will only reflect the interest of the dominant group 
* Sellin referred to this as the border culture conflict 
* This conflict of values from the interaction of different cultures causes a backlash by the weaker groups who tend to act defiantly or defensively 
* Sellin suggests that the more unequal the balance of power the worse the conflict will be
* George Vold
* Key conflict theorist - pluralistic perspective 
* Claimed that people are naturally social and inevitably form groups out of shared needs, values, and interests 
* Various groups compete with each other for power and to promote their values and interests each competes for control over political processes, including the power to create laws that can suppress other groups
* Austin Turk
* Argued that competition for power among various groups in society is the primary cause of crime
* Said that certain levels of conflict between groups are beneficial because they may remind citizens to consider if the conventional standards can be improved
* Similar to Emile Durkheim’s proposition that a certain level of crime is healthy for society - defines moral boundaries 
* One thing that distinguishes Turk from other theories is that he saw conflict among various components of the criminal justice system
* Ex…police are often at odds with courts - tension from those who should be on the same side
Chapter 11: Marxist Theory
* Endorses a power-elite model of society 
* Suggests that social economics and politics are in the hands of a small ruling class called late-stage capitalism 
* Late-stage capitalism - term given to highly industrially developed democracies 
* Capitalism - (in Marxist theory) is a two-class system composed of the ruling class owning the means of production (bourgeoisie) and the proletariat (workers who only have their labor to sell)  
* Capitalist monopoly is the means of production allowing them to control the political state
* This political power is used to manipulate the legal and criminal justice system 
* Repressed by the system - workers have no power to reverse their oppression
* This will remain constant until they organize a revolution 
* Ex. Found in Quinney
Marxist Theories of Crime
* Richard Quinney 
* Added Bonger suggests that even the crimes committed by the elite are caused by capitalism 
* These acts are crimes of “domination and repression” committed by the elite to keep the lower classes down or to protect their property, wealth, and power
* Ex. White collar crimes, which involve raising profits or incomes - result in losses to relatively lower-income clients or customers 
* Based on the writings of Marx
* Marxist theories of crimes focus on the fact that people from the lower classes (poor) are arrested and charged with crimes at a disproportionate rate
* Emphasizes the effects of a capitalistic society on how justice is administered 
* Describes how society is divided by money and power
* Marx said - the law is the tool by which the ruling class controls the lower class and keeps them in a disadvantaged position
* Law is used as a mechanism so the middle or upper class can maintain its dominance over the lower class 
* Law is used to protect the economic interest of the ruling class and to prevent the lower class from gaining access to financial resources 
* Marxist theories propose that economic power can be translated into legal or political power and account for the general disempowerment of the majority
* Willem Bonger 
* Early theorist who applied Marxist theory to crime 
* Emphasized the relationship between economy and crime but did not believe simply being poor would cause criminal activity 
* Said capitalism caused a difference in the way individuals felt about society and their place in it
* Said capitalism caused selfishness and greed - caused more competition among people for goods and resources which leads to more individualism and egoistic tendencies that promote a strong focus on self-interest at the expense of societal well-being
* Said this strong focus is what caused criminal behavior
* Also stressed cultural differences, crime can be normal, and adaptive response to social and economic problems 
Chapter 12: Critical Theory
Marx and communism
* The idea of economics as a primary factor in antisocial behavior can be traced back to Karl Marx
* His thought has led other theorists to contemplate the relationship between economic conditions and crime
* Marx discussed how in Capitalism the owners of the means of production paid low wages to maximize their profits as the workers expense 
* Ex. Unsafe working conditions
Critical Theory
* Critical theory describes and critiques the social structure 
* It also actively seeks solutions to the problems of crime and criminal justice 
* According to critical theory, the definitions of crime and justice are located within a social system that is based on and perpetuates social inequality 
* Ex. Slavery and the legal apparatus surrounding it
* Ex. To perpetuate this social order, slave laws defined the rights of the owners and the role of the enslaved, those who broke the law often faced criminal penalties 
* Slave owners wrote the law to benefit themselves 
* If a slave broke the law, it was a problem with the slaves, not the law
* Society’s idea of justice was deeply rooted in social inequality 
* It took the Civil War to dislodge the idea of slavery being just
* This is evidence of how difficult it is to alter social paradigms and change individuals' cherished beliefs about their society
Feminist Criminology
* Set of theories that maintain that gender inequality is at the root of offenses in which female persons are victims or offenders
* In a patriarchal society - “society controlled by men” - crime is one of the most patriarchal institutions 
* Because of strides made in gender equality, women can now be found at every level of the criminal justice system…from judges to criminals
Peacemaking Criminology 
* Considers the social and personal effects of crime as a whole 
* Considers the offender and victim
* Also, it considers the social structures that accept, enable, and encourage crime
* Applied to the issues of crime:
* Personal level, Interpersonal level, Institutional level, Global Level
* Personal level - solve personal problems before external solutions to crime 
* Interpersonal level - Use manners, politeness, and civility to accomplish goals instead of force and intimidation 
* Institutional/societal level - structural issues may lead to crime. Gun control laws
* Global level - looks at the broad social conditions that enable or encourage the practice of smuggling - advocates for improving the economy of struggling countries so the need for smuggling is no more 
Cultural Criminology 
* Examines how social ideas, values, and the media reflect and produce antisocial behavior 
* Issues - Modeling police after the military, images, and symbols used by graffiti writers
* Adopts the perspective to better understand how crime is culturally supported or culturally discourse by everyday social structures 
Postmodern Criminology 
* Looks at how language and traditional ideas affect how we define and perceive crime, the law, and society
* Postmodern thought…explains how we construct our perceptions of the world 
* Language - communicates ideas in many ways…context, syntax, etc…
* Three areas:
* Language - courtroom or prison language 
* Partial knowledge - In many scenarios in police/citizen interactions, both parties are working on partial knowledge. Misunderstanding could have tragic effects on police, suspects, and victims
* Deconstruction - examining the rules and regulations by questioning traditional assumptions about certainty, meaning, and truth. 
“Critical Race Theory” 
* Set of propositions suggesting that racial inequality is so ingrained in society that it is propagated through legal and social discourse 
* Proposes Three Basic Principles:
* Eliminate racism by revealing how deeply ingrained it is within American culture 
* Value of storytelling - uses personal narrative to allow oppressed groups to speak for their own experiences
* Critique of liberalism - traditional liberal perspectives are not radical enough to bring about the fundamental changes necessary for equality and justice 
Chapter 13: Feminist Theories 
Feminist Theories of Crime 
* Feminist criminology evolved when various assumptions and stereotypes about women in criminal justice were being questioned 
* The questions included women as offenders and victims
* Some thoughts included things such as that females commit serious violence less than men, if we could better explain this then maybe we could reduce male violence
* When the Marxist theories of crime were becoming popular in the early 70’s the feminist perspective began to receive attention 
* The feminist School of Criminology
* It began largely as a reaction to the lack of rational theorizing about why females commit crimes and why they tend to be treated far differently by the criminal justice system
* Before 1970s
* Theories explaining why females commit crimes were based on false stereotypes 
* To understand the different perspectives you must first understand a few key terms that will be associated with the perspectives, such as chivalry, paternalism, patriarchy 
Key Terms - Feminist Perspective
* Chivalry
* Behaviors and attitudes toward specific individuals that treat them as though they are on a pedestal 
* Chivalrous behavior is more complex than just preferential treatment
* It’s more like a bartering system where men hold more power over women 
* Historically, some women of certain social classes and racial backgrounds were seen as more worthy of chivalrous treatment 
* Paternalism 
* Denotes that women need to be protected for their good
* Implies independence for men and dependence for women
* Both chivalry and paternalism fsuggest that women need protection because they are weak and helpless - which can lead to various types of control 
* Patriarchy 
* The Latin word pater - refers to the role of the father
* Patriarchal societies exclude women from the exercise of political responsibilities 
* Refers to the subordinate role of women and male dominance 
* Social, legal, and political climate based on male dominance and hierarchy
* The key aspect of idealogy is that women’s nature is biologically, not culturally, determined
Types of Feminism 
* Liberal feminism 
* Assumes that differences between males and females in offending were due to the lack of opportunities for females in education and employment and that as more females were given such opportunities they would come to resemble males in terms of offending 
* Also termed mainstream feminism 
* Founded on political liberalism which holds a positive view of human nature as well as the ideas of liberty, equality, justice, dignity, and individual rights
* The main feature of liberal feminism is that women should receive the same treatment and rights as men
* Perception - gender inequality is due to women’s blocked opportunities to participate in various aspects of the public sphere, such as education, employment, and political activity
* Two types of liberal feminism 
* Classical
* Support limited government and a free market as well as political and legal rights
* Facets - freedom of expression, religion, and conscience 
* Welfare
* Favor government involvement in providing citizens - especially underprivileged individuals with housing, education, health care, and social security 
* The market should be limited through significant taxes and restricted profits 
* A major criticism of the liberal feminist perspective
* Is that it primarily focus on the interest of white, middle-class, heterosexual women
* Some argue that the liberal perspective poses men as the criminal yardstick - which results in equating justice with equality and not considering other influential standpoints such as race/ethnicity and social class
* Another area where the “equal treatment” doctrine is problematic is in sentencing 
* Critical Feminism or Radical Feminism 
* Emphasizes the idea that many societies are based on a state of patriarchy wherein males dominate virtually every aspect of society, including politics, family structure, and the economy 
* Radical feminism emphasizes the importance of personal feelings, experiences, and relationships
* Gender is a system of male dominance and women’s biology is the main cause of patriarchy
* Gender inequality is based on men’s need or desire to control women’s sexuality and reproductive potential 
* The process of gender is based on how boys and men see themselves as superior to and having the right to control girls and women
* This further intensified through heterosexual sexuality, as defined by men 
* Radical feminists maintain that sexism is the first widespread form of human oppression 
* Two Types of Radical Feminisms
* Libertarian
* Assert that an exclusively feminine gender identity will most often limit a woman’s development as a full human person
* They encourage women to become androgynous individuals who embody good - masculine and good - feminine characteristics 
* Cultural 
* Argue that women should be strictly female and feminine they should not try to be like men
* Women should emphasize such values and virtues as interdependence, community, connection, sharing, emotion, body, trust, and the absence of hierarchy. 
* Women should not emphasize such values as independence, autonomy, intellect, domination, etc… 
* Marxist Feminism
* Emphasis on men’s ownership and control of the means of economic production, thus focusing solely on the economic structure
* Men control the economic success in our country - virtually every country in the world - this flows from capitalism (economic and political system - controlled by private parties for profit) 
* Socialist feminism 
* Moves from focusing on economic structure as the primary detriment for females and instead emphasizing control of reproductive systems 
* Scoialist Feminism Cont. 
* This model believes that women should take control of their bodies and their reproductive function to control their criminality 
* Studies show that women who reproduce more frequently, especially in the inner city, poor environments, tend to offend more often than other females, it appears that other factors mediate these effects 
* Women who want good or better futures tend to take more precautions against becoming pregnant
* This perspective attempts to integrate concepts such as male domination and political-economic relationships 
* This perspective focuses on gender, class, and racial relation of domination
* Two general themes in social feminism
* Two System Explanations of women’s oppression1. 
* Maintain that patriarchy not capitalism, may be a woman's ultimate worst enemy 
* Interactive system explanations of women - oppression2.
* Attempt to illustrate that both capitalism and patriarchy are equal contributors to women's oppression, they are interdependent
* Postmodern Feminism 
* Holds that an understanding of women as a group, even by other women, is impossible because every person's experience is unique 
* This perspective rejects traditional assumptions about truth and reality and the emphasis is more on the plurality, diversity, and multiplicity of women as distinct from men 
Chapter 14: Developmental and Life-Course Theories 
Developmental Theories
* Explains the development of criminal behavior over time
* Focus on the evolution of individual criminality over time
* The onset of offending is when the offender first starts offending
* Desistance - is when an individual stops committing a crime
* Frequency - refers to how often the individual offends
* Intensity - is the degree of seriousness of the offense 
* Duration - is the length of the individual criminal career 
* Virtually all studies show an escalation from minor status offending(truancy, underage drinking, etc…) to petty crime(shoplifting, smoking pot) to far more serious criminal activity - robbery and aggravated assault - then murder or rape
* Shows that in most cases people begin with relatively minor offenses and progress toward more serious and violent offenses
* It is still undetermined when police contact or an arrest becomes “early onset”
* Most studies draw the line at 14 - so arrest or contact before this would be considered early onset 
* Offender frequency - probably the most researched aspect of developmental theory 
* Referred to as “lambda” = offender frequency 
* The average frequency of offending by criminals over a years time - varies greatly
* Frequency depends on many variables 
Antidevelopmental Theory Low Self-Control Theory
* Hiroshi - proposed a general theory of low self-control as the primary cause of all crime and deviance 
* This is referred to as the general theory of crime 
* It assumes that individuals are born predisposed toward selfish, self-centered activities and that only effective child-rearing and socialization can create self-control 
Sampson and Laubs Developmental Model
* In contrast to Gottfredson and Hirshchi's model low self-control
* Shows that individuals can change their life trajectories in terms of crime
* Shows that events or realizations can occur that alter the frequency or incident of offending to zero at times
* To explain: you must consider the dominant life-course model of offending, which is Sampson and Laub’s Developmental Model
* They emphasized the importance of certain life events and life changes, which can alter an individual's decision to commit or not commit criminal activity 
* Strongly emphasize the importance of transitions or events that alter life trajectory such as marriages, employment, etc… 
* Research has consistently shown that marriage and full-time employment significantly reduce the recidivism rates, in offenders such as California parolees 
Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy
* Adolescence-limited offenders
* Make up most of the general public
* Those who committed an offence when they were a teenager or young adult 
* Offending mainly due to peer associations 
* Life course persistent offenders
* A small number of people
* Most violent and chronic - commit the vast majority of violent offenders
* Neurological problems, disadvantages, and environmental are contributors. 
* Trajectory 
* If a person had neurological issues and a disadvantaged environment then that person would have a higher likelihood of being on a trajectory toward criminal activity 
* This suggests that it is essential to pay attention to what happens in early life 
* Illegal activities are common in young adults so you should look at what happens before the age of 12 to determine 
Policy implications
* Focus on concerns relating to prenatal and perinatal(immediately before or after birth) stages of life
* If policymakers want to affect the early onset of criminal activity they need to increase the care of pregnant mothers
* Should it be legally mandated for pregnant mothers who have drug addictions to attend intervention programming? 
* The policy may suggest assigning special case workers to high-risk infants 
Chapter 15: Integrating Criminal Theories
* Integrated theories 
* Those with two or more traditional theories are merged into one cohesive model
* Integrated theories are an attempt to put together two or more traditional theories of offending to form one unified explanation theory
* Some forms of theoretical integration deal  with only concepts of proportions 
* Some forms of theoretical integrations deal with a level of analysis (micro vs macro, or both) 
The Need for Integrated Theories in Criminology 
* The idea of combinations may sound good but it has its weaknesses \
* Emphasis on theoretical integrations is a recent development that has evolved due to the need to improve the empirical validity of traditional theories which suffer from a lack of impute from various disciplines 
* Earlier theories are based on single factory or limited reductionism 
* Later - theories began to examine various social, biological, and psychological factories
* As time progressed - the third stage of criminological theory arose systematically reductionism 
* Much of the research on criminology was sociological based
* Modern Criminologist now acknowledge the limitations of this state of systematic reductionism 
Detergent forms of integrated theories
* Several different types of integrated theories
* Typically categorized by the way that their creators propose the theories should fuze together
* The three most common forms of propositional theoretical integration(judgment or opinion) meaning synthesis of theories based on their postulates(assumptions of existence, fact, truth, etc…) are:
* End-to-end integration - used when theorists expect that one theory will come before or after another in terms of the temporal ordering of causal factors
* More developmental because it proposes a certain ordering of the component theories that are being merged
* Ex…an integrated theory may claim that most paths toward delinquency and crime have their early roots in the breakdown of social attachments and controls (social bonding theory) but later, the influence of negative peers(differential association) becomes more emphasized 
* Weak social bond - Negative peer associations - crime
* This is considered end-to-end because it conveys the linkage of the theories based on the temporal ordering of two or more theories in their casual timing 
* Specifically, the breakdown of social bonds would come first, followed 
* Side by side 
* Cases are classified by a certain criterion(impulsive or planned) and two or more theories are considered parallel explanations depending on what type of case is being considered 
* So when the assumptions or target offenses of two or more theories are different, a side-by-side is the most natural way to integrate them 
* Ex.. low self-control may be used to explain impulsive criminal activity, 
* Side by side More typical individuals 
* High self-control - consideration of potential negative consequences - deferred from committing crimes
* More impulsive individuals or activities 
* Low self-control - the desire for immediate gratification - failure to consider consequences - the decision to commit a criminal act
* These side-by-side integrations show how two different theories can each be accurate, depending on what type of individual or criminal activity is being considered
* ooseem to follow from a conceptually broader theory 
* Can take on two forms
* Theoretical reduction
* This happens when it becomes evident that theory A contains more abstract or general assumptions than theory B and therefore the key parts of theory B can be accommodated within the structure of theory A
* Ex. General Strain theory subsumed Merton's traditional strain theory
* Critics argue that by reducing a theory it loses its unique identity 
* Theoretical Synthesis 
* Done by abstracting more general assumptions from theories A and B allowing parts of both theories to be incorporated into a new theory C
* Less common because it involves creating a new theory
* However, if done correctly it may be the integration that provides the most advancements in theory developmental 
* It could bring together previous independent models while resulting in new predictions and propositions 
* Micro, macro, Cross level (both) 
* Elliot's integrated theory is a micro-level theory 
* This means that all the component theories that may up the synthesized model refer to the individuals as the unit of analysis
* This can help provide information on why individuals behave the way they do but it does not help us understand criminality across groups 
* Some integrated models include theories from only macro levels
* Ex… Robert Brusk’s synthesis of conflict theory and the social disorganization framework
* The most complicated integrated theories include both micro and macro
* Difficult because it includes bringing together unnatural relationships between individual-based propositions and group-level postulates 
Examples of Integrated Criminological Theories
* Elliots Integrated Model
* The first Major perspective proposed attempted to merged various traditionally separate theories of crime 
* It attempted to merge strain, social disorganization, control, social learning, and differential association-reinforcement perspectives
* Thornberry’s interaction theory 
* Combined social control learning models 
* States that both of them attempted to explain criminal behavior in a straight forward casual process and are largely targeted toward a certain age population
* Stated that the process of social control
* Thornberry’s Interaction Theory
* Incorporation of 5 elements
* Commitment to school
* Attachment to parents
* Belief in conventional values
* Adoption of delinquent values
* Association with delinquent peers

Transcript for:Overview of Criminological Theories

Transcript for:
Overview of Criminological Theories