Overview
This chapter examines the social, economic, religious, and political landscape of the thirteen American colonies on the eve of the Revolution. It highlights the colonies’ rapid population growth, increasing diversity, social mobility and emerging inequalities, the development of a unique American identity, and the roots of conflict with Britain.
Population Growth and Diversity
- The colonial population surged from fewer than 300,000 in 1700 to about 2.5 million by 1775, mainly due to high natural birth rates among both whites and blacks.
- By 1775, about 500,000 colonists were black slaves; nearly 90% of the population lived in rural areas.
- Major immigrant groups included:
- English (the largest group)
- Germans (about 6% of the population, known as "Pennsylvania Dutch," mostly in Pennsylvania)
- Scots-Irish (about 7%, settled in the backcountry from Pennsylvania to Georgia)
- Africans (nearly 20%, mostly in the South)
- Other Europeans: French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swiss, and Scots Highlanders
- The Middle Colonies, especially Pennsylvania and New York, were the most ethnically diverse; New England remained predominantly English.
- Intermarriage and mingling among groups laid the foundation for a new, multicultural American identity.
- The African slave trade mixed people from many different tribal backgrounds, creating a diverse African-American community.
- Native American communities also became more mixed, especially in areas where displaced tribes gathered.
Social Structure and Mobility
- Compared to Europe, colonial society was more equal and offered greater opportunity, except for slavery.
- Most white colonists were small farmers who owned and worked their own land; cities had small classes of artisans, shopkeepers, and laborers.
- Social mobility was possible—even former indentured servants could rise in status—but by the mid-1700s, signs of stratification and barriers to mobility were emerging.
- The South’s wealth was concentrated among large slaveholders, widening the gap between the gentry and poor whites, who often became tenant farmers.
- Indentured servants and convicts made up a lower class; some eventually prospered, but many remained poor.
- Black slaves had no social mobility and formed a permanent, oppressed underclass. Fears of slave rebellion led some colonies to try to restrict the slave trade, but Britain vetoed these efforts.
- Social distinctions became more pronounced in cities, where the richest 10% owned most of the wealth.
- The poor, including widows, orphans, and the homeless, were fewer than in England but still present, especially in cities like Boston.
Professions and Economy
- The Christian ministry was the most respected profession, though its influence was declining.
- Physicians were poorly trained and not highly esteemed; medical care was primitive, and epidemics like smallpox and diphtheria were common.
- Lawyers were often viewed with suspicion and contempt, though their status improved over time.
- Agriculture was the dominant occupation, employing about 90% of colonists. Key crops included tobacco (Chesapeake), rice and indigo (South), and wheat and corn (Middle Colonies).
- Fishing, especially in New England, was important and supported related industries like shipbuilding.
- Shipbuilding, lumbering, and small-scale manufacturing (ironworks, rum distilleries, beaver hats) were significant, especially in the North.
- The triangular trade connected the colonies with Africa and the West Indies, involving the exchange of rum, slaves, and molasses.
- Trade imbalances with Britain led colonists to seek foreign markets and to smuggle goods in defiance of British laws like the Molasses Act (1733).
- Lumber and naval stores were vital exports, and American-built ships made up a large part of the British merchant fleet.
Transportation, Communication, and Daily Life
- Transportation was difficult due to poor roads; most travel and trade relied on rivers and the coast.
- Taverns were important social centers, offering food, drink, news, and a place for political discussion. They played a key role in shaping public opinion and fostering democratic ideas.
- An intercolonial postal system developed by the mid-1700s, but mail was slow and often not private.
- Life was physically demanding; most people worked from dawn to dusk. Food was plentiful, especially meat, but diets could be monotonous.
- Homes lacked basic comforts like heat, plumbing, and lighting. Garbage disposal was primitive, and animals roamed the streets.
- Amusements included militia musters, house-raisings, quilting bees, funerals, weddings, winter sports (North), card playing, horse racing, cockfighting, and dancing (South).
- Holidays were widely celebrated, though Christmas was frowned upon in New England; Thanksgiving became a uniquely American festival.
Religion and the Great Awakening
- Two main established (tax-supported) churches: Anglican (Church of England, dominant in the South and parts of New York) and Congregational (descended from Puritanism, dominant in New England except Rhode Island).
- Religious diversity increased, with significant numbers of Presbyterians, Lutherans, Dutch Reformed, Quakers, Baptists, Catholics, Methodists, and Jews.
- Religious toleration grew, though anti-Catholic laws persisted and officeholding was often restricted.
- The Great Awakening (1730s–1740s) was a widespread religious revival sparked by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. It emphasized emotional spirituality, personal conversion, and challenged established churches.
- The movement led to the rise of new denominations, splits within existing churches, and the founding of new colleges (Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, Dartmouth).
- The Great Awakening encouraged missionary work among Native Americans and slaves, increased religious and political engagement, and helped foster a sense of shared American identity.
Education and Culture
- Education was valued most in New England, mainly for religious reasons; primary and secondary schools were established early, though quality varied.
- The South, with its dispersed population, relied on private tutors for the wealthy; education was mostly for boys.
- Colleges founded during the colonial era included Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth.
- The curriculum focused on religion and classical languages, with little emphasis on science or independent thinking.
- Colonial culture was heavily influenced by Europe, especially Britain. Most artists and writers had to go abroad for training and recognition.
- Notable exceptions included Benjamin Franklin, who contributed to science (electricity, inventions), literature (Poor Richard’s Almanack), and public life (founding the first public library).
- Phillis Wheatley, an enslaved African American woman, published poetry despite her disadvantaged background.
Politics and Colonial Self-Government
- By 1775, eight colonies had royal governors (appointed by the king), three were proprietary (governors chosen by proprietors), and two (Connecticut and Rhode Island) elected their own governors.
- All colonies had two-house legislatures: an upper house (appointed or elected) and a lower house (elected by property-owning men).
- Assemblies used control over governors’ salaries to assert power and independence, leading to frequent conflicts.
- Local government varied: county government in the South, town meetings in New England, and a mix in the Middle Colonies. Town meetings were a model of direct democracy.
- Voting was restricted by property and religious qualifications, but more colonists could participate than in Europe. Still, about half of adult white males were disenfranchised.
- Colonial institutions promoted ideals of tolerance, education, economic opportunity, freedom of speech and press, and representative government, laying the groundwork for later democracy.
- The Zenger trial (1734–35) in New York was a landmark for freedom of the press, establishing that true statements about public officials could not be prosecuted as libel.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Triangular Trade — A trade system linking the colonies, Africa, and the West Indies, often involving the exchange of slaves, sugar, and rum.
- Great Awakening — A major religious revival (1730s–1740s) that emphasized emotional spirituality, personal conversion, and challenged established churches.
- Indentured Servant — A person who worked for a set period in exchange for passage to America, often gaining freedom and opportunity afterward.
- Zenger Trial — The 1734–35 legal case in New York that promoted freedom of the press by establishing the right to publish truthful criticism of public officials.
- Molasses Act — A 1733 British law restricting colonial trade with the French West Indies, leading to widespread smuggling and resentment.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review key terms and their significance for understanding colonial society.
- Study the causes, main figures, and effects of the Great Awakening on religion and society.
- Compare the economic, social, and cultural differences among the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies.
- Examine how colonial self-government and local institutions contributed to the development of American democracy.
- Consider how diversity, social mobility, and emerging inequalities shaped colonial identity and set the stage for revolution.