AP Exam Formatting
PART I:
Total Weight 66.7%
75 Multiple Choice Questions – 90 minutes
10 MINUTE BREAK
PART II:
Total Weight 33.3%
TWO FRQs – 70 Minutes
* Article Analysis Question
* Evidence Based Question
You are going to spend 15 - 30 minutes reviewing all of the terms in the cram packet and highlighting the terms into study categories. DO NOT STUDY THINGS YOU ALREADY KNOW. Once you have categorized your terms and concepts, you will be able to create flashcards and a study schedule for all of the terms you are not comfortable with.
Category 1:
Highlight in GREEN every term you already know 100%. You know you could answer any question about this term on the exam.
Category 2:
Highlight in YELLOW any term you kind of remember learning about but that you would have to look up again for a refresher.
Category 3:
Highlight in RED any term you HAVE NO IDEA ABOUT WHEN DID WE EVEN LEARN THIS?????
When you are done highlighting, you need to immediately research anything you highlighted in red. Then, start creating flashcards for any term highlighted in yellow.
________________
“Unit Zero” – Research Design
Basic Vocabulary:
* Hypothesis – tentative explanation – must be FALSIFIABLE – able to be supported or rejected
* Operational Definition: clear, precise, quantifiable definition of your variables – allows replication and collection of reliable data
* Qualitative data: descriptive data (eye color)
* Quantitative data: numerical data – IDEAL and necessary for statistics
* Population – everyone the research could apply to
* Sample – the people (or person) specifically chosen for your study
Research Designs
* CORRELATION: identify relationship between two variables
Adv: useful when experiments are unethical Disadv: CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION
* Directionality problem – which direction does the correlation go? (depression cause low self-esteem, low self-esteem causes depression, or a 3rd variable?)
* 3rd variable problem diff. variable is responsible for relationship (ice cream and murder)
* Positive Correlation – variables increase & decrease together
* Negative Correlation – as one variable increases the other decreases
* The stronger the # the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the pos/neg sign. Cannot be < or > than 1.
* Stronger relationships = tighter clusters on graph Image result for correlations
* EXPERIMENTS: purposefully manipulate variables to determine cause /effect
Adv: only type that establishes cause and effect Disadv: can be unethical, too artificial
* Independent Variable: purposefully altered by researcher to look for effect
* Experimental Group: received the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple exp, groups
* Control Group: placebo, baseline (part of the IV); can only have 1
* Dependent Variable: measured variable (is DEPENDENT on the independent variable)
Vocab unique to experiments:
* Placebo Effect: any observed effect on a behv. That is “caused” by the placebo (shows effectiveness of exp. Treatment). Usually fixed w/ blinded studies
* Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the participant or the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to (drug studies)
* Single-Blind: only participant blind – used if experimenter can’t be blind (gender, age, etc)
* Confound: error/ flaw in study that is accidentally introduced (can be called a confounding variable)
* Random Assignment: assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random –increase chance of equal representation among groups (spreads the lefties across both groups) – allows you to say Cause / Effect
OTHER STUDY TYPES
* NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: observe ppl in their natural settings
Adv: real world validity
Disadv: No cause and effect
* CASE STUDY: Studies ONE person (usually) in great detail
Adv: – collect lots of info
Disadv: No cause/effect
* META-ANALYSIS: combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes
STATISTICS
* Descriptive stats: show shape of the data
* Measures of Central Tendency:
* Mean: Average (use in normal distribution) a) Negative skewness; b) Normal curve; c) Positive skewness (Durkhure... | Download Scientific Diagram
* Median: Middle # (use in skewed distribution)
* Mode: occurs most often
* Bimodal – has two modes – usually indicates good bad scores Learning from Multimodal Target | Deep Learning | Tensorflow | Towards Data Science
a) Negative skewness; b) Normal curve; c) Positive skewness (Durkhure... | Download Scientific Diagram
* Skews – created by outlers
* Neg skew = mean is to the left (neg side), mode is to the right a) Negative skewness; b) Normal curve; c) Positive skewness (Durkhure... | Download Scientific Diagram
* Pos skew = mean is to the right
* Measure of variation
* Range – distance bw smallest and biggest #
* Standard deviation – avg. amount the scores are spread from the mean (bigger # = more spread)
* INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: establishes significance (meaningfulness)
* STATISTICAL SIGNIFANCE = results not due to chance, exp.manipulation caused the difference in means
* p<.05 = stat. sig, smaller = better
* EFFECT SIZE = data has practical significance – bigger = better
* ETHICAL GUIDELINES (IRB APPROVAL NEEDED FOR PPL)
* Confidentiality: names kept secret
* Informed Consent: must agree to be part of study
* Informed assent – minors AND their parents must agree
* Debriefing: must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception)
* Deception must be warranted
* No harm– mental/physical
Additional Vocabulary:
* Surveys: usually turned into correlation. Subject to self report bias - errors when collect surve data due to:
* Social desirability – ppl lie to look good
* Wording effects – how you frame the question can impact your answers
* Random Sample (selection): method for choosing participants for your study –everyone has a chance to take part, increases generalizability
* Representative Sample: Sample mimics the general pop. (ethnic, gender, age)
* Convenience Sample: select participants on availability – less representative and less generalizability this way
* Sampling bias – sample isn’t representative, due to conv. sampling
* Cultural norms – behvs of a particular group can influence research results
* Experimenter bias / Participant bias: experimenter/participant expectations influences the outcome
* Cognitive bias– bias in thinking/judgment
* Confirmation bias – find info that supports our preexisting beliefs
* Hindsight bias – “I knew it all along”
* Overconfidence – overestimate our knowledge / abilities
* Hawthorne effect – ppl change behavior when watched
* Research needs peer review and adequate sample sizes
Biological Basis Pillar
*NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action potential, NS = nervous system
HEREDITY VS ENVIRONMENT
* Evolutionary psycs – study how natural selection influences behavior
* Heredity (nature) = how genes influence your behavior
* Environment (nurture) = how outside situations influence your behavior (school)
* NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER IS BOTH
* Twin / Adoption Studies:
* Genetics: identical twin will have a higher percentage of also developing a disease
* Environment: identical twins raised in different environments show differences
NERVOUS SYSTEM
* CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord
* PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS – relays to Central NS
* Somatic NS: Voluntary movement, has sensory and motor neurons
* Autonomic NS: Involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc) – contains the:
* Sympathetic NS: fight/flight (generally activates – exception digestion)
* Parasympathetic NS: rest / digest (generally inhibits - exception digestion)
NEURON AND NEURAL FIRING Image result for neuron diagram
* NEURON: Basic cell of the NS
* Dendrites: Receive incoming NTs
* Axon: AP travels down this
* Myelin Sheath: speeds up AP down axon, protects axon
* Synapse: gap b/w neurons
* SENSORY neurons – receive sense signals from environ.–send signal to brain
* MOTOR neurons – signals to move – send signals from brain
* Interneurons – cells in spinal cord /brain responsible for reflex arc
* Reflex arc – important stimuli skips the brain and routes through the spinal cord for immediate reactions (hand on a hot flame)
* GLIA – support cells – give nutrients and clean up around neurons
* Neurons Fire w/ an Action Potential: ions move across membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon
* Resting potential: neuron maintains a -70mv charge when not doing anything
* Depolarization: charge of neuron briefly switches from neg to pos. – triggers the AP
* Threshold of depolarization: stimulus strength must reach this point to start the AP
* All or nothing principle: stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity or speed of the response (flush the toilet) ap
* Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets)
* NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NT): Chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons. Classified as excitatory (increase APs in other neurons) or inhibitory (decrease APs)
* GABA: Major inhibitory NT
* Glutamate: Major excitatory NT (glutes excite you!)
* Dopamine: Reward (short term) & fine movement – in hypothalamus, assoc. w/ addiction
* Serotonin: Moods (long-term), emotion, sleep –in amygdala, too little assoc. w/ depression
* Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory and movement –in hippocampus, assoc. w/ Alzheimer’s
* Norepinephrine: sympathetic NS - too little assoc. w/ depression
* Endorphins: decrease pain
* Substance P: pain regulation (abnormality increases pain and inflammation)
* HORMONES: if not in the nervous system, it’s a hormone
* Oxytocin: love, bonding, childbirth, lactation
* Adrenaline: fight/flight
* Leptin: makes you full (stops hunger)
* Ghrelin: makes you hungry (turns you into a gremlin)
* Melatonin: sleep
* Agonist: drug that mimics a NT
* Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT
* Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron.(antidepressants cause reuptake inhibition (block reuptake) – treatment for depression
* PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS:
* Depressants: Decrease NS activity (alcohol)
* Stimulants: Increase NS activity (caffeine & cocaine)
* Hallucinogens: hallucinations and altered perceptions (Marijuana)
* Opioids: relieve pain (endorphin agonists) (heroin)
* Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects
* Addiction: must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms
* Withdrawal: symptoms associated with sudden stoppage
THE BRAIN
* Cerebellum – movement, balance, coordination, procedural memory (walking a tightrope balancing a bell)
* Brainstem / Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP, breathing)
* Reticular activating system: alertness, arousal, sleep, eye movement
* Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the brain – higher order thought processes – includes limbic system, lobes, corpus callosum
* Limbic System
* Amygdala: emotions, fear
* Hippocampus: episodic and semantic memory (if you saw a hippo on campus you’d remember it!)
* Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors – link to endocrine system, homeostasis
* Thalamus: relay center for all but smell
* Pituitary gland: talks w/ endocrine sys and hypothalamus – release hormones
* Occipital Lobe: vision
* Frontal Lobe: decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality, language, executive function – includes the:
* Prefrontal cortex: front of frontal lobe – executive function
* Motor Cortex: back of frontal lobe - map of our motor receptors – controls skeletal movement
* Parietal Lobe: sensations and touch – controls association areas – incudes:
* Somatosensory Cortex: map of our touch receptors
* Temporal Lobe: hearing and face recognition, language
* Association areas:receive input from multiple areas / lobes to integrate info
* Left hemisphere only – damage to these results in aphasia (damaged speech)
* Broca’s Area: Inability to produce speech (Broca – Broken speech)
* Wernicke’s Area: can’t comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?)
* Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures – leads to “split-brain patients” Image result for sleep cycle
* Split-brain experiments:
* Image shown to R eye processed in L hemi – patient can say what they saw; image shown to L eye processed in R hemi, can’t say what was seen splitbrain2
* BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain changes via damage and through experience
* ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends hormones throughout the body
* Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus. release growth hormones
* BRAIN RESEARCH:
* EEG: shows broad brain activity – not specific – electrical output
* fMRI: show brain activity in specific regions, measures oxygen
* Lesion – destruction of brain tissue
DISEASES & DISORDERS TO KNOW
* Multiple sclerosis: destruction of myelin sheath, disrupts APs, causes impaired mobility, paralysis, pain
* Myasthenia gravis: acetylcholine blocked, disrupts APs, causes poor motor control and paralysis
* Blindsight: caused by lesions to primary visual cortex, ppl can “see” ie catch a ball etc despite being blind – evidence for association areas
* Prosopagnosia: face blindness – damage to occipital and/or temporal lobe
* Broca’s aphasia – damage to Broca’s area – stuttered speech
* Wernicke’s aphasia – damage to Wernicke’s – jumbled speech
* Phantom limb pain – pain from a limb that no longer is there (amputated) – caused by brain plasticity
* Epilepsy – seizures – too much / little Glutamate / GABA
* Alzheimer’s – destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus, memory loss
SLEEP
* Consciousness – awareness of cognitive processes (asleep or awake?)
* Circadian Rhythms: 24ish hour biological clock of Body temp & sleep
* Disrupting it makes your internal clock get out of sync (jet lag and shift work do this)
* Beta Waves: awake (you betta be awake for the exam)
* Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy
* NREM (non REM) stages-
* NREM 1: light sleep, has hypnagogic sensations (falling feeling)
* NREM 2: bursts of sleep spindles
* NREM 3 Delta waves: Deep sleep
* Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming, cognitive processing
* Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night, deep sleep decreases
* REM is “paradoxical” bc your HR and brain is active – but your body is relaxed
* REM Rebound: after sleep disruptions and/or lack of REM sleep you’ll have more / more intense REM sleep
* DREAM THEORIES:
* Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy – stimulating lodged memories in limbic sys & brain stem. Dreams start random then develop meaning. Its Neural theory.
* Consolidation dream theory: brain is combining and processing memories for storage
* WHY IS SLEEP NECESSARY
* Consolidation – storage of memories
* Restoration – helps regenerate the immune system and restore energy
* SLEEP DISORDERS
* Insomnia: Inability to fall / stay asleep (due to stress/anxiety)
* Somnambulism (sleep walking) – happens during stage 3 - NOT during REM
* Narcolepsy: fall into REM out of nowhere – treated w/ stimulants
* Sleep Apnea: stop breathing while asleep (due to obesity usually)
* REM behavior disorder: malfunction of mechanism that paralyze you during REM
SENSATION
Intro Vocab
* Sensation – receive stimulus energy from environment
* Transduction – convert that info into APs
* Perception – brain interprets the info
* Absolute Threshold: detection of signal 50% of time (is it there)
* Just noticeable difference: can tell the difference b/w a stronger and weaker stimulus or two similar things (coke vs pepsi, did it get stronger?)
* WEBER’S LAW: two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion.(the stronger thing, the more you have to add to tell the difference)
* Synesthesia: “disorder” where your senses blend (see sounds, etc)
* Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (ex. nose blindness)– sensory receptors respond less (get tired)
* VISUAL SYSTEM:
* Lens – focuses light on retina
* Retina – contains photoreceptors (rods/cones/ ganglion cells)
* Fovea–area of best vision(cones here)
* Rods – black/white, dark adaptation; way more rods than cones; located along sides of retina
* Cones – color, bright light (red, green, blue) (only in the fovea)
* Ganglion cells – create optic nerve (opponent process theory happens here)
* Blind spot – occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye –
Diagram
Description automatically generated
* VISUAL SYSTEM VOCAB:
* Accommodation :lens changes curvature to focus images on retina
* Nearsightedness- better vision near
* Farsightedness – better vision far
* THEORIES OF COLOR VISION:
* Trichromatic – three cones for receiving color
* Blue – short waves
* Green – medium waves
* Red – long waves
* Opponent Process – complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells – explains why we see an after image
* Red/green
* Blue/yellow
* Black/white
* Color deficiency:
* Damage to, or missing - cones or ganglion cells
* Red/green is most common
* Dichromatism – missing 1 cone
* Monochromatism – only have rods
* AUDITORY SYSTEM:
* Properties of Sound:
* Wavelength – distance bw peaks - pitch
* Long waves = low pitch
* Narrow waves = high pitch
* Amplitude – height of wave – loudness
* Short waves = soft
* Tall waves = loud Image result for properties of sound amplitude
* THEORIES OF HEARING: all occur in the cochlea
* Place theory – location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches)
* Frequency theory – rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches)
* Volley theory – groups of neurons fire APs out of sync 1: Diagram showing the structure of the human ear, detailing the parts... | Download Scientific Diagram
* Other Hearing Stuff:
* Sound localization –which ear gets the waves first tells location of sound
* Conduction deafness – damage to bones of ear and ear drum cause hearing loss
* Sensorineural – damge to cochlea, hairs in cochlea, or nerve – usually due to old age and loud noise kin3188x_0521
* OTHER SENSES:
* Vestibular: Sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear)
* Kinesthetic: Sense of body position & movement wo looking
* Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a “gate” to control how much pain is experience. Pain is both mental and physical
* “Hot”: activation of warm and cold receptors
* Taste (gustation): 6 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory), oleogustus (fatty/oily)
* Tongue, mouth, and brain process taste
* Density of taste receptors makes ppl super tasters, medium tasters, or nontasters
* Sensory interaction creates taste – wo smell taste isn’t as strong or is absent
* Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus
* Pheromones produce chemical signals w/in a species for attraction
Cognition Pillar
PERCEPTION
* Top-Down Processing: Whole idea (prior expectations) 🡪 smaller parts (painting w/ faces)
* Bottom-Up Processing: Smaller Parts (sensory info) 🡪 Whole idea (dog of bunch of dots)
* Schemas: preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant)
* Perceptual Set: tendency to see something as part of a group – speeds up signal processing
* GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts
* Gestalt Principles:
* Figure/ground: organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground)
* Closure: mentally fill in gaps
* Proximity: group things together that appear near each other
* Similarity: group things together based off of looks C:\_MJR\Consulting\Prentice Hall\Power Point\Kassin 2e\KA0323.GIF
* Constancies: recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness)
* Apparent Movement: objects can appear moving when they aren’t (flip books, blinking lights)
* Selective attention: focus on one thing and block out other things – can result in:
* Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice something added b/c you’re so focused on another task (gorilla video)
* Change Blindness: fail to notice a change in the scene (curtain changes color)
* Cocktail party effect: notice your name across the room when its spoken, when you weren’t previously paying attention
* BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES: (how both eyes make up a 3D image)
* Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly different on each retina, location of image helps us determine depth
* Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer
* MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES (how we form a 3D image from a 2D image)
* Interposition: overlapping images appear closer Sensation & Perception, 4e
* Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away
* Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks) OLCreate: PUB_3046_1.0: Linear Perspective
* Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear further away
* Texture Gradient: coarser objects=closer
THINKING & PROBLEM SOLVING
* Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics
* Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example
* Algorithms: step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula)
* Heuristics: short cut strategy
* Representative Heuristic: make judgment based on your experience (like a stereotype) – assume someone must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet
* Availability heuristic: make a judgement based on the first thing that pops in your head (assume planes are dangerous b/c crash in the news)
* Metacognition: thinking about (reflecting upon) the way you think
* Mental Set - keep using one strategy to solve a problem – cannot think outside the box
* Functional Fixedness: can only see one (common) use for an item– cannot think outside of the box
* Sunk Cost fallacy – continue something bc you’re already invested (might as well finish it now…) – when stopping would be more beneficial
* Gambler’s Fallacy – believe something is more likely to happen bc its “due” – the dice have no memory
* Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things at once (Creative) – hindered by func. fixedness
* Convergent thinking: limits creativity – one answer
* Executive functioning: generating, organizing, planning, carrying out goal directed behvs
DP Psychology: Multi-store Model
MEMORY
ENCODING: Getting info into memory
* Automatic encoding – requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?)
* Effortful encoding–requires work (school)
* Levels (depth) of Processing: the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered
* Structural encoding (shallow) – emphasis on physical structural
* Phonemic encoding (intermediate)– emphasis on what words sound like
* Semantic encoding (deep) = emphasis on meaning of the words
* Elaborative Rehearsal – strategies to enhance encoding like below:
* Imagery – attaching images to information makes it easier to remember
* Dual encoding – using multiple methods of processing to remember (photo + words)
* Chunking – break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #)
* Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us remember info easier
* Acronyms – using letter to remember something (PEMDAS)
* Method of loci – using locations to remember a list of items in order
* Context dependent memory – where you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing)
* State dependent memory – the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high) Working Memory Model In Psychology (Baddeley & Hitch)
* Mood congruent memory – remember happy events when happy, sad when sad
* Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten http://revunote.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/forgetting1.jpg
* Distributed practice (spacing effect) – review a little every night (resets forgetting curve )
* Massed practice – cramming
* Testing effect – quizzing over material periodically
STORAGE: Retaining info over time
* Multi-Store Model – Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model
* Sensory Memory – stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention)
* Iconic Memory – visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds
* Echoic Memory – auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds
* Short Term Memory – info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items
* Maintenance Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock
* Long term memory – lasts a life time
* Explicit – require conscious effort:
* Episodic: events
* Semantic: facts
* Implicit- automatic, no effort needed:
* Classical conditioning
* Priming: info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on
* Procedural: skills (muscle memory)
* Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 – visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A “central executive” puts it together before passing it to LTM
Other odd types of memory
* Prospective memory – remembering you need to do something (pick up milk)
* Autobiographical memory: memory for your personal history – combo of episodic and semantic
* Superior autobiographical – rare condition – ppl have extra detailed memories
* Memory organization
* Hierarchies: memory is stored according to a clusters of related info
* Categorically – stored in categories
* Semantic networks: webs of semi-related info
* Tip of the tongue phenomenon – can’t remember the name of something bs you’re stuck elsewhere in your semantic network
* Schemas –frameworks that organize info
* Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs.
* Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information Cat and dogs = different.
Memory storage
* Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for episodic and semantic
* Memories before age 3 are unreliable (infantile amnesia) – hippocampus still forming
* Cerebellum for implicit / procedural memories
* Amygdala for emotional memories
* Frontal lobe for encoding and retrieval
* Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons)
* Memory consolidation – memories are strengthened and made more stable with time
RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage
* Serial Position Effect: tendency to remember the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list best
* Primacy happens bc the info got moved to long term memory
* Recency bc its still in your short term Serial Positioning Effect design pattern
* Recall: remember what you’ve been told w/o cues (essays)
* Recognition: remember what you’ve been told w/ cues (MCQ) (this one is better)
* Repressed memories: unconsciously buried memories to defend the ego (psychodynamic approach)
* Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place (which is the real penny)
* Proactive interference
OLD info blocks new info
* Retroactive interference
NEW info blocks old info
* Constructive memory – the way we update memories w/ new memories, associations, feelings – memory is unreliable
* Source Amnesia: forget who told you, where you heard it
* Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (lost in the mall, Disney land)
* Framing – the way a question is framed impacts how info is recalled / perceived (how fast were the cars going when they smashed) MyersPsy8e_fig
* Imagination Inflation: ppl are more confident an event happened after imagining it (even though it didn’t happen)
* Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves forward (forget new info – 50 first dates)
* Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves backwards (forget old info)
INTELLIGENCE & ACHIEVEMENT
Intelligence theories are split:
* Single form of intelligence (g factor) - general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ tests of today). If you’re smart in one area you’re smart in other areas too
* Multiple intelligences – intelligence has lots of types, not just math/language. Can be high/low in areas
First IQ Test: used a formula and is where the traditional value of “IQ” comes from
IQ Formula
* Chronological age = actual age
* Mental age = tested age compared to other of that age
* 100 is average, SD = 15
* Use for IQ scores /tests today: educational services, diagnostic testing for learning disabilities, GT identification
* Psychometrics – field of psych & education for creating tests
* Standardization: test is given using consistent procedures and environments, and graded the same (SAT, AP exams)
* Tests Should be reliable: same results over time (consistent)
* Split-half reliability: compare two halves of the test
* Test-retest reliability: use the same test on 2 different occasions
* Tests Should be valid: test is accurate – measures what it is intended to
* Construct validity: test measures what you want it to (an IQ test actually measures IQ)
* Predictive validity: test is able to accurately predict a trait (high math scores predicts good engineer)
* Standardized tests establish a normal distribution
* Standard dev are used to compare scores.
Standard deviation measures how much the scores vary from the mean. Percentages below NEVER change.
* Types of Tests:
* Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn a new skill (ASVAB)
* Achievement: tests what you know(AP)
Historical Issues with Intelligence Testing
* Nature vs Nurture Influence on IQ:
* Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological parents
* Environment: early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ
* Personal and sociocultural biases impact interpretation of results
* Poverty and education inequalities neg. impact scores
* Eugenics – study of how to “improve” the gene pool by discouraging (sterilizing or otherwise) individuals from reproducing
* Culture fair tests – IQ tests have been used to refuse / limit access to jobs, military, education, and immigration
* Need to focus on non-language skills & minimize cultural specific questions
* Stereotype threat: feel at risk of conforming to the neg. stereotype about your group - influences your behaviors, cognitions
* Stereotype lift – do better on a test when comparing self to other groups w/ neg stereotypes
* FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over the past 80 years – probably due to education standards, healthcare
* Fixed Mindset: belief intelligence is fixed from birth – leads to less effort
* Growth mindset: belief you can develop abilities through work and determination – leads to more effort
Development and Learning Pillar
DEVELOPMENT
“3 thematic issues” in Dev. Psych:
1. Nature / Nurture (genes or environment)
2. Continuous / Discontinuous (gradual dev over time or dev. In stage)
3. Stability / Change (traits persist, unchanging or traits change as we age)
* CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: ppl of different ages at the same point in time
* Adv: inexpensive & quick
* Disadv: can be differences due to generational gap
* LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same ppl over time
* Adv: eliminates groups (cohort) differences, lots of detail
* Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high drop out rates
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
* Prenatal Development:
* Teratogens: external agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development (alcohol, drugs, etc)
* Illness, mutations, hormones, and environment can impact prenatal dev
* Physical Development:
* Maturation: natural course of development, occurs no matter what (walking)
* Gross movement: large muscles, strength and coordination (walking) – develops first
* Fine movement: small muscles, precision and controlled (writing)
* Reflexes: innate responses we’re born w/ - that go away w/ time
* Rooting – turning of face towards a finger when touched on the cheek (food response
* Other reflexes include - sucking, swallowing, grasping, Moro (startle), stepping, Babinski (toes spread when foot touched)
* Eyes have the most limited development, takes till 1 year
* Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a “cliff” Visual Cliff Experiment (Gibson & Walk, 1960)
* Critical period (sensitive period) – limited time where something HAS to be developed or it won’t happen (language for humans)
* Imprinting: birds believe the first thing they see after hatching is mom
* PUBERTY! (sexual maturation bc of hormones)
* Primary sex characteristics: necessary structures for reproduction (ovaries, testicles, vagina, penis)
* Menarche – 1st period
* Spermarche – first release of sperm
* Secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive characteristics that dev during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening of voice, body hair)
* Adolescent growth spurt – rapid skeletal and muscular dev.
* Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully developed till 25)
* Adulthood – the following level off and then decline:
* Mobility, flexibility, reaction time, visual / auditory acuity, fertility
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
* JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV.
* Schemas –frameworks that organize info
* Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs.
* Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information Cat and dogs = different.
* Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: focused on exploring their world
* Lack (and gain) Object Permanence: Objects when removed from field of view are thought to disappear (peek-a-boo)
* Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use pretend play and mental symbols
* Lack Conservation: recognize that substances remain the same despite changes in shape, length, or position (girls with juice in glasses)
* Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4)
* Are egocentric: inability to distinguish one’s own perspective from another’s – think everyone sees what they see
* Lack (and start developing) theory of mind: people’s beliefs, intentions, emotions are their own
* Use animism: believe artificial objects have thoughts / feelings
* Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use operational thinking, classification, and can think logical in concrete context
* Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use abstract and idealist thoughts, hypothetical-deductive reasoning
* Problems with Piaget’s theory: stages too discrete, dev. differs b/w kids
* VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive development is a social process too, need to interact w/ others
* Zone of Proximal Development: gap b/w what a child can do on their own and w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) Scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development
* Crystallized intelligence: fact and prior learning / experiences – increases w/ age
* Fluid intelligence: ability to learn new things, reaction times, abstract thinking & quick problem solving – decreases w/ age
* Dementia: loss of cognitive function – results in emotional and behavioral changes – ex. Alzheimer’s
LANGUAGE
* Language: shared system of symbols that operate by rules and is infinite
* Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch sound in chat)
* Morpheme: smallest unit that caries meaning (-ed means past tense)
* Grammar: rules in a language that enable us to communicate
* Semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding –ed makes something past tense)
* Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences (white house vs casa blanca)
* Cooing stage: produces vowels sounds
* Babbling stage: start to create phonemes w/ constants
* One-word stage: used to try and communicate wants
* Telegraphic speech (two word stage): further communication
* Overregularization: grammar mistake- children over use certain morphemes (I go-ed to the park)
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
* Temperament: patterns of emotional reactions in babies – impacts attachment
* Easy, difficult, slow to warm up
* “Monkey experiments”: discovered that contact comfort is more important than feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation couldn’t socialize
* Attachment: strange situation paradigm (children left alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited w/ mom – determines your attachment style
* Utilizes idea of separation anxiety: during late sensorimotor stage kids are fearful of ppl they don’t know or being left alone
* Secure attachment (60% of infants): upset when mom leaves, easily calmed on return. Tend to be more stable adults
* Avoidant insecure (20% infants): actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when she leaves – adults have distant relationships and fail to communicate
* Anxious insecure (10% infants): actively avoids mom, freaks out when she leaves – jealous relationships and clingy
* Disorganized insecure(5%): confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse
* Parenting styles- influenced by culture
* Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my way or the highway” – kids lack initiative in college, low self-esteem
* Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules – kids lack initiative in college – high self-esteem
* Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – kids become socially competent and reliable – best type - high self-esteem and initiative
* Peer relationships w/ time
* Children engage w/ play
* Parallel play – play side by side w/o interacting – turns into pretend play
* Adolescents rely on peers
* Imaginary audience: believe others are constantly watching them (related to egocentrism)
* Turns into Personal fable – belief you are special / unique / invincible
* Adulthood – culture impacts when major life events should occur – some allow a transition bw adolescence and adulthood
* Social clock – shared (cultural) expectation of age-appropriate behavior (when to get married, have kids, etc)
* Gender roles: expected behaviors (norms) for men/women due to cultural influence
* ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : each stage represents a crisis that must be resolved, results in competence or weakness
* Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months): if needs are met infants dev basic trust
* Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1 -3 yrs): learn to exercise their will (I WANT TO DO IT – pours milk)
* Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, also be creative (WHY kid)
* Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to puberty): learn what you’re good or accomplished at (school / sports success)
* Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing roles and forming an identity
* Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): form close relationships and gain capacity for love
* Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): discover sense of contributing to the world, thru family & work
* Integrity vs despair: (60s and up): reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or failure
* MARCIA’S IDENTITY THEORY: Identity Development Theory | Adolescent Psychology
* Diffusion: no commitment, no exploration, no idea who they are (no idea of a major – not even thinking on it)
* Foreclosure: premature commitment w/ no exploration (I’ll be a lawyer bc my parents say so)
* Moratorium: actively seeking an identity, no commitment though (trying lots of clubs to see what sticks)
* Identity Achievement: committed sense of self, desire to accomplish and contribute (picked a major after careful consideration) Pin page
* Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): stressful / traumatic events during childhood – impact relationships and health
* Abuse, divorce, mental illness
* ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY:
* Microsystem – immediate environment w/ daily interaction (family, friends, teachers)
* Mesosystem – relationships bw microsystem (interaction bw parents and teachers / school)
* Exosystem – environment you’re not directly a part of that still impacts you (government policies, parent’s job)
* Macrosystem – societal and cultural influences (customs, norms, traditions)
* Chronosystem – life stage and historical events (economic recession, environmental changes) Ecological systems theory. Adapted from "Bronfenbrenner's ecological... | Download Scientific Diagram
LEARNING
Behaviorist perspective is focused on learning – (change in behv through experience). Measures observable behv, and usually ignores the mind
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: explains involuntary behvs and emotions
* Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): causes response w/o needing to be learned (food)
* Unconditioned Response (UCR): response that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate)
* Conditioned Stimulus (CS): thing that now brings about a response (bell)
* Conditioned Response (CR): response after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate)
* Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented .5-1 sec BEFORE the US
* Acquisition: process of learning the response pairing
* Extinction: previously conditioned response dies out over time
* Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of time the CR comes back out of nowhere
Learning - Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High - 5 Steps to a 5 AP Psychology, 2014-2015 Edition
* Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell)
* Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS (only drool to that one bell, no others)
* Higher order conditioning: when the original CS is paired with 2nd thing – and becomes a new CS (drool to squeaky cabinet / can opener)
* Conditioned taste aversion (one-trial learning)- Innate predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning) – due to biological preparedness – predisposed to react to dangerous biological threats
* Habituation – get used to a regular stimulus and stop responding (startle less to a loud noise w/ time)
* Emotional conditioning – emotions can be conditioned in humans (little Albert experiment) lead to behavioral treatments for fear (counterconditioning)
OPERANT CONDITIONING: explains voluntary behv resulting from consequences
* LAW OF EFFECT Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken a behavior (cat in the puzzle box)
* PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND:
* Pos. Reinforcement: Add something nice to increase a behavior (gold star for turning in HW)
* Neg. Reinforcement: Take away something bad/annoying to increase a behavior (put on seatbelt to take away annoying car signal)
* Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying (food and water)
* Secondary Reinforcers: everything else (stickers, high-fives)
* Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- can be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money)
* Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to decrease a behavior (spanking)
* Neg. Punishment: Take away something good to decrease a behavior (take away car keys)
* Punishment temporarily changes behv., doesn’t tell you what to do – ineffective
* Operant conditioning extinguishes like classical conditioning
* Shaping: use successive approximations to train behavior (reward closer and closer desired behaviors to teach a response – rat basketball)
* Continuous Reinforcement schedule: Receive reward for every response
* Partial Reinforcement schedule: vary how often the response is given – strengthens responses and takes longer to extinguish
* Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X number of response (every 10 envelopes stuffed get $$)
* Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks get a paycheck)
* Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded after a random number of responses (slot machine
* Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed (BeReal app)
* Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction (how long will keep playing a slot machine before you think its broken?) 1-Typical performance established by fixed and variable schedules of... | Download Scientific Diagram
* Ratio schedules lead to the highest response rates (bc you are in control of your reward)
* Learned Helplessness – no matter what you do you never get a positive outcome so you just give up (word scrambles, depression models)
* Instinctive drift – can only teach animals behvs they already do, also will return to original behvs w/ time How I think of Attributional Biases : r/Mcat
* Superstitious behaviors – operantly conditioned through partial reinforcement & coincidence – pigeons hopping on one foot to get food
MISC LEARNING TYPES
* SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY – learning through observation
* Modeling Behaviors: Children model (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo dolls to demonstrate. The more similar the model is the better you learn.
* Vicarious conditioning: form of observational learning, watch another get a consequence and learn - don’t do that!
* Latent learning– learning is hidden until useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way through, performance improved
* Create Cognitive maps – mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked (firefighters taught this)
* Insight learning– some learning is through simple intuition (chimps with crates to get bananas) – aha! moment
Social and Personality Pillar
SOCIAL PSYCH – how we think about, influence, and relate to others
Attributions and Perceptions -
* Attributions – how ppl explain behv & mental processes of themselves & others
* Dispositional attribution: person’s internal qualities –personality
* Situational attribution: external circumstances
* Attribution theory: we explain behaviors by crediting the situation or the person’s internal disposition (personality)
* Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to blame a person’s disposition (personality) and not consider the situation (that guy cut me off b/c he’s a jerk – not that his wife could be in labor)
* Actor-observer bias: when its others – blame the person, when its you, blame the situation
* Self-serving bias: self only – our successes are bc we’re awesome, our failures are someone else’s fault
* Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you all to pass, you know this, you study – fulfilling my prophecy)
* Social comparison: we evaluate ourselves based on comparisons to society and social circles
* Upward comparison – compare to ppl you think are better then you (I want to be like them)
* Downard comparison – compare to someone you think is worse off than you (at least I don’t have it as bad as them)
* Relative deprivation – judge what we are lacking relative to others
* Explanatory Style: how ppl explain good and bad events in their lives and others – either optimistic (pos) or pessimistic (neg)
* External locus of control: chance / outside forces control your fate
* Internal locus: control your own fate
* Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them (the more time you spend around something the more you like it)
Attitude formation and change:
* Stereotype: generalized concept about a group (a label)
* Reduces cognitive load (mental effort) when making decisions
* Usually the basis of prejudice and discrimination
* Prejudice: neg. reaction towards a person/group w/o any advance experience w/ that group (a belief / emotion)
* Discrimination: different treatment of a person/ group than how you would treat others (a behavior)
* Implicit attitudes: unconscious bias –leads to
* Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our own group
* Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your own group as more important than others
* Outgroup homogeneity bias: perception that out-group members are similar, while the in-group members are diverse
* Just-world phenomenon: tendency for ppl to believe that the world is just and therefore ppl get what they deserve (homeless ppl)
* Belief perseverance – stick to your original belief even when given evidence to disprove it
* Cognitive dissonance - two opposing thoughts conflict w/ each other, causing discomfort (dissonance), which makes us find ways to justify the situation (cult that was going to be abducted by aliens, smokers)
Social Situations
* Social norms – define expectations & roles for individuals and social situations
* Social influence theory – ppls thoughts and actions are influenced by others
* Normative social influence: we conform to gain approval or to not stand out from the group (be part of the norm)
* Informational social influence: we conform to others b/c we think their opinions must be right (change answers to math hw)
* Elaboration likelihood model – 2 ways to persuade
* Central route to persuasion: change
people’s attitudes through logical arguments and explanations. Leads to long term behavior change
* Peripheral route to persuasion: change people’s attitudes through incidental cues (like a speaker’s attractiveness). Can also use emotional appeals. Leads to temporary behavior changes. Use the:
* Halo effect – overall impression of a person / thing is influenced by a single pos. trait or characteristics
* Foot in the door phenomenon: complying w/ a small request then leads to going along w/ a larger request (can I have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?)
* Door in the face phenomenon: a large request is turned down, when then leads you to be more likely to comply w/ a small request (can I have $100? Heck no! How about $20? Okay)
* Conformity: change in a person’s behv to more closely match the group classic experiment – showed lines of different lengths, confederates gave wrong answers to see if others would go along w/ it – factors influence conformity: asch_conformity
1. Person is insecure
2. Group has 3 or more ppl
3. Group is unanimous
4. Person admires group
5. Person has no prior commitment to a response
6. Others observe their behavior
7. Cultural expectations (collectivistic)
* Obedience: complying w/ an order or command - classic experiment: participants were to “teach” another individual using shocks. ~65% of participants would administer lethal shocks to another person simply b/c they were told - factors that influence obedience:
1. Proximity of authority figure
2. Legitimacy or prestige of the figure
3. Distance from the victim
4. Role models for defiance
* Culture influences conformity and obedience:
* Collectivistic: encourages social and group ties (more conformity / obedience)
* Individualistic: Encourages individuality (less conform / obedience)
* Group polarization: the more time spent w/ a group the stronger their thoughts / opinions will become (must have same opinion already) A graph with lines and text
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* Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a group leads to everyone going along w/ the same thinking, ignoring other possibilities or bad ideas
* Bystander effect (diffusion of responsibility): the more ppl around the less likely we are to help someone in need (Kitty Genovese)
* Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that encourage anonymity (mob mentality)
* Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group to exert less effort when pooling their effort together (tug of war)
* Social facilitation: perform better on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others
* False-consensus effect: we overestimate the degree to which everyone else thinks / acts the way we do
* Superordinate goals: two or more groups work together to achieve a common goal, creates cohesiveness
* Social trap: ppl put their own needs before the group needs, results in bad outcome (choose 5 or 15 demo)
* Industrial / Organizational Psych: psych of work – best practices, relationships in the workplace or w/ company, how you feel about job (burnout)
* Altruism (prosocial behavior): unselfish interest in helping other ppl – happens bs of:
* Social reciprocity norm: we give so we can get (help me and I’ll help you)
* Social responsibility norm: act in ways that benefit the community (moral sense of good)
* Gain social approval
* STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT (ZIMBARDO): classic “experiment” where individuals were assigned to be guards / prisoners. w/in days they took on their roles and went too far. Highly unethical
PERSONALITY
Psychodynamic explanation: personality is largely unconscious, and shaped from early childhood experiences
* id: our hidden true wants and desires (devil on your shoulder)
* superego: our moral conscious (angel on your shoulder)
* ego: part of the mind / personality that deals w/ every day reality – what ppl see – mediates bw the id and super ego (its you!)
Defense mechanisms – egos attempt to protect your from threats
* Repression: push memories back into the unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it)
* Regression: go into an earlier development period in the face of stress (during exam week you start to suck your thumb)
* Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality (refuse to believe you have cancer)
* Rationalization: justify something happening (don’t get into your college – justify it was a crap college anyway)
* Displacement: take feelings out on something else (can’t tell at teacher, go home and yell at the dog)
* Projection: attribute personal shortcomings & faults on to others (man who wants to have an affair accuses his wife of one)
* Reaction formation: transform unacceptable motive into his opposite (insecure about masculinity becomes extra aggressive)
* Sublimation: replace unacceptable impulse w/ a socially acceptable one (person who likes fighting becomes professional kickboxer)
How do we “test” this personality approach?
* Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli shown to “reveal your unconscious” – inkblots and thematic apperception tests. Highly subjective, not considered reliability or valid
Trait explanation:
* Traits: enduring personality characteristics, people can be described by these – have strong or weak tendencies. They are stable, genetic, and predict other attributes.
* BIG FIVE personality : (acronym OCEAN) You vary on each of these
* Openness : high levels = imaginative, independent, like variety; low = not open to change
* Conscientiousness: high levels = organized, careful, disciplined; low = disorganized and messy
* Extraversion: high levels = sociable, likes being center of attention, meeting new ppl - (opposite is introversion: shy, timid, reserved)
* Agreeableness: high levels = soft hearted, trusting, helpful; low levels = suspicious, not a team player
* Neuroticism (emotional stability): high levels = mood swings, easy to stress; low = emotional stable, handles stress
How do we “test” this personality approach?
* Personality inventories – special name for a test that uses factor analysis: statistical procedure used to identify similar components
Humanistic explanation:
* Emphasized personal growth and free will.
* Self-actualization: fulfilling your full potential as person – self-actualized ppl are self aware, caring, spontaneous, open, secure
* Emphasis on unconditional positive regard: attitude of acceptance regardless of circumstances
Social-cognitive explanation:
* Behavior is a complex interaction of inner process and environmental influence – which influences personality
* Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals
* RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior, cognitions, and environment make up you.
{Joe is shy which makes him anxious in social situations (personal factor) – he just moved to a new school (environment) – so he doesn’t talk to others much during lunch and bw classes (behavior). These factors reinforce each other.} kin3188x_1106
* Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed, so you ensure you do through actions - this influences your -
* Self-concept – how you view yourself in relation to others – which influences your triangle and self-efficacy
MOTIVATION
Theories:
* INSTINCT THEORY: innate, fixed patterns in response to stimuli (nest building, mating) (explains animal motivation)
* DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need creates aroused tension (drive) that motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by homeostasis: equilibrium). “I’m hungry, I seek out food to decrease my hunger”
* APPROACH CONFLICT THEORY (Lewin)
* Approach approach conflict: win – win situation; conflict is which win you have to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your two favorite restaurants – you can only choose one though)
* Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose situation; outcome has positive and negative aspects – conflict is you having to deal with it
* Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose – lose; both outcomes are bad but you have to choose one (clean your room or do your homework)
* SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY: motivated intrinsically or extrinsically
* Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation – you do it b/c you like it
* Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain a reward (trophy)
* INCENTIVE THEORY: driven by external rewards (extrinsic motivation)
* AROUSAL THEORY: sometimes we’re driven to increase arousal through curiosity, experimentation, thrill seeking – 2 associated theories:
* YERKES DODSON LAW): humans seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks requires more arousal, harder tasks need less. Best is moderate levels Stress Less: Utilizing the Yerkes-Dodson Law During Exams | Zencare A screenshot of a computer
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* SENSATION SEEKING THEORY: need a varied amount of novel (new) experiences to be happy, so we seek it out – 4 types:
* Experience seeking: (desire to try new things)
* Thrill / adventure seeking: attraction to risky things (sky diving)
* Disinhibition: like things that result in loss of self-control (drugs, alcohol)
* Boredom susceptibility: inability to tolerate repetition (constantly seek change)
Hunger
* Biology of hunger:
* Leptin – stop eating
* Ghrelin – start eating
* Psych of hunger:
* Environmental cues – time of day, social gatherings, etc
* Memory – amnesia patients don’t remember when they ate, so they’ll eat again
Emotion
* Historical theories focused on 2 things:
* Physiological arousal (HR, blood pressure)
* The cognitive experience of an emotion
* Some theories said these happen together, some said they’re linear
* Current theories add a cognitive label or appraisal (we have to decide which emotion we’re feeling)
* Some theories place the label before the arousal, some say its simultaneous / linear
* Reason why polygraphs are unreliable
Biological Explanation for the difference in current theories -
* Some stimuli are routed directly to the amygdala (fast route – simultaneous processing) (gut reaction to a cockroach) – some stimuli have to be thought about first and hence go to the frontal lobe (long route – label before) (first date jitters) A diagram of a path
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* Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced to smile will make you happier (cartoon study with pen in mouth) – supports physio exp. Before the label – replication of this is mixed
* Broaden and build theory: everyday pos. emotions broaden awareness, which builds skills and resilience over time, leading to better well-being.
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* Universal emotions: there are SIX universal emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL cultures
* Display Rules: social group or culture’s norms of how to express certain emotions
Mental and Physical Health Pillar
Health / Stress
* Health Psych – addresses physical well-being and illness
* Stress – associated w/ hypertension, headaches, immune suppression
* Distress – stress that is negative or damaging
* Eustress – stress that is positive or motivating (graduation)
* Tend and Befriend Theory of Stress: some ppl cope by tending their own needs / others needs. Some seek connections (befriend) w/ ppl. (usually associated w/ women)
* GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME: three phases of a stress response
* Alarm: temp. shock, fight/flight/freeze
* Resistance: immune system enhanced, coping
* Exhaustion: body gives up, most likely to get sick Diagram
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* Problem-focused coping: solving or doing something to alter the course of stress (to-do list, time management, ask for help)
* Emotion-focused coping: managing emotions when stressed (meditation, exercise) (drug / alcohol use is negative)
Positive Psychology
* Pos. Psych – researches factors leading to better well-being, resilience, pos. emotions, psych health
* Gratitude – experiencing and expressing gratitude increases well-being (giving thanks, giving back)
* Exercising signature strengths / virtues increases well-being
* Wisdom – learning, curiosity
* Courage – bravery, perseverance
* Humanity – love, kindness
* Justice – teamwork, fairness
* Temperance – humility, forgiveness
* Transcendence – gratitude, hope
* Posttraumatic growth – experiencing trauma can result in growth and resilience
Explaining / Classifying Disorders
7 Perspectives to Explaining / Treating
Perspective
Explanation
Treatment
Biological
Genes cause changes in NTs & brain
Medication & surgical techniques
Evolutionary
Increased survival, reproduction
Cognitive
Maladaptive thinking & emotions
Cognitive restructuring
Behavioral
Maladaptive learned associations
Applied behavior analysis
Psychodynamic
Unconscious thoughts / behvs from childhood
Free association, dream interpretation
Humanistic
Lack of social support, not fulfilling potential
Unconditional pos regard, client-centered
Sociocultural
Maladaptive social / cultural dynamics
Interaction Models to Explain Disorders
* Biopsychosocial – combines bio, psych, and sociocultural factors
* Diathesis – Stress: individual has a genetic predisposition, disease must be “turned-on” by environmental stimuli (like stress)
* Eclectic: most ppl use a more than one perspective
* Defining abnormal behavior:
* Based on level of dysfunction
* Is there perception of distress
* Deviation from social norms
* Diagnosing abnormal behavior: diagnosing requires special training & evidence based diagnostic tools like:
* DSM: Published by APA.
* ICM: published by WHO
* Both contain: lists of behvs needed for diagnosis; codes for insurance coverage and stat tracking
* Diagnostic labels have positive and negative consequences:
* Pos: acceptance, connections, easier to find treatment
* Neg: cultural and societal stigmas and discrimination
NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS: inappropriate behaviors for age / maturity – usual onset in childhood
* Attention deficit / hyperactivity (ADHD): has one or both -
* Inattention impacting ability to function academically / socially
* Hyperactivity / impulsivity
* Causes – changes in prefrontal cortex, reticular activating system, limbic system; genetic
* Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): impairment in social relationships / communication & repetitive behvs
* Causes – genetics, prenatal exposure to environmental stimuli
FEEDING AND EATING DISORDERS:
* Anorexia nervosa: weight loss of at least 15% ideal weight, distorted body image, major calorie restriction, excessive exercise
* Bulimia nervosa: usually normal body weight, go through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat lots, then vomit)
Causes of Eating Disorders
* Biology: changes in hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, genetics
* Sociocultural: social media exposure, parenting styles, hobbies
* Behavioral / Cognitive: learned assoc. and maladaptive thought patterns
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS
* Major depressive disorder: extreme sadness and despair, apathy towards life
* Persistent depressive: long term “less severe” depression
BIPOLAR DISORDERS
* Mania: heightened mood, risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of ideas
* Bipolar I: manic episodes, usually full depressive episodes
* Bipolar II: hypomanic episodes, full depressive episodes,
Causes of Depressive AND Bipolar Disorders
* Biology: lower levels of serotonin & norepinephrine linked to depression, higher levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin studies also support this.
* Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads to depression
* Behavioral: learned helplessness
* Sociocultural: more common in women, LGBTQ, low SES
* Biopsychosocial model and Diathesis stress apply
SCHIZOPHRENIA
NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES (DID)!
* Acute schizophrenia: severe episode(s) w/ normal functioning inb/w
* Chronic – repeated episodes w/ decreased functioning
* SYMPTOMS
* Positive Symptoms (not good – means something added))
* Hallucinations: sensory experiences w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or hearing things)
* Delusions: false beliefs (persecution: people are out to get them, grandeur: I am God
* Disorganized thinking / speech: word salads – string together sentences in nonsensical ways
* Disorganized motor behavior – excited catatonia – sudden / unpredictable movement
* Negative Symptoms (something taken away)
* Flat affect: lack ability to show emotions
* Disorganized motor behavior – catatonic stupor –become frozen / unmoving over periods of time
Causes of Schizophrenia
* Genetics: runs in families
* Dopamine hypothesis: too much dopamine in the brain
* Prenatal virus exposure
* Diathesis-stress
ANXIETY DISORDERS
* Phobic: irrational fear that disrupts your life
* Acrophobia – fear of heights
* Arachnophobia – fear of spiders
* Agoraphobia – fear of specific social situations
* Using public transport
* Being in open places
* Being in enclosed spaces w/ ppl (shops, theaters)
* Standing in line or being in a crowd
* Being outside of the home alone
* Panic Disorder: frequent and sudden panic attacks - unanticipated and overwhelming biological, psychological, and cognitive experiences of fear / anxiety (feels like a heart attack)
* Culture bound ex. –
* Ataque de nervios – uncontrollable screaming, shouting, crying assoc. w/ stressful event (often family) – assoc. w/ Caribbean and Iberian descent
* Social anxiety disorder: intense fear of being judged, criticized, watched by others (can be paired w/ agoraphobia)
* Culture bound ex. –
* Taijin kyofusho - people fear others are judging their bodies as undesirable, offensive, or unpleasing (seen in Japan)
* Generalized Anxiety Disorder: person is generally anxious, all the time
Causes of Anxiety Disorders:
* Behavioral: fear conditioning leads to anxiety, which is then reinforced and/or associated w/ other objects / events
* Biological / Evolutionary: natural selection favored those with certain phobias (heights). Twins often share disorders. Often see less GABA in the brain. Overactive autonomic NS
* Cognitive: maladaptive thinking / emotional responses
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
* Dissociative Amnesia (w/ or w/o Fugue): inability to remember parts of the past as a result of trauma: if w/ fugue - following a traumatic event a person leaves, taking on a whole new life & personality w/ no memory of the previous one
* Dissociative Identity Disorder: formerly multiple personalities – person fractures into several distinct personalities who normally have no awareness of each other. - NOT SCHIZOPHRENIA!
Causes of Dissociative Disorders
* Usually result of severe trauma or stress (often childhood abuse)
OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDERS
* Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD): person is overwhelmed with both:
* Obsessions: persistent unwanted (intrusive) thoughts (did I leave the stove on?)
* Compulsions: intrusive repetitive behaviors (hand washing, checking)
* Hoarding: subtype of OCD – compelled to accumulate and keep things
Causes of Obess. Compulsive Disorders
* Biology: Genetic, overactive frontal lobe
* Behavioral: learned associations
* Cognitive: maladaptive thought patterns
TRAUMA AND STRESS RELATED DISORDERS
* Post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD): flashbacks, hypervigilance (always on the look out for something terrible to happen), severe anxiety, insomnia, emotional detachment, hostility
* Cause – stressful / traumatic event (not just war – can be an accident, natural disaster, unexpected injury / loss)
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
* Marked by disruptive, inflexible, enduring behavior patterns
Cluster A: - odd / eccentric cluster
* Paranoid: distrust / suspicious about people’s motives
* Schizoid: no interest in relationships, lack emotions (think devoid) – similar to negative symptoms of schizophrenia
* Schizotypal: discomfort w/ social interactions, extremely superstitious, delusion thinking, unusual speech – similar to pos. symptoms of schizophrenia
Cluster B – dramatic, emotional, erratic
* Antisocial: NOT “avoidant of socialization” – more like “anti-society” – disregard for others, manipulative, breaks laws
* Borderline: instable interpersonal relationships & self-image
* Histrionic: excessive emotionality & attention seeking
* Narcissistic: need for admiration & lack of empathy
Cluster C – anxious and fearful cluster
* Avoidant: severe social anxiety, feel inadequate, w/ a strong want for intimacy
* Dependent: helpless, submissive, need to be taken care and for constant reassurance, can’t make decisions for self
* Obsessive-compulsive: preoccupation w/ orderliness, perfectionism, control (what people think of as OCD)
TREATMENT OF DISORDERS
Ethics of Therapy from the APA
* Nonmaleficience – do no harm
* Fidelity – uphold high standards for you and other therapists
* Integrity – don’t deceive, misrepresent, be honest about your abilities
* Respect for people’s rights and dignity – don’t be biased
* Deinstitutionalization – release of large amount of ppl from asylums due to better medications
* Decentralized approach – combo of meds and therapy, minimal hospitalization
Psychodynamic Perspective: trying to uncover the unconscious
* Free association: say aloud anything that comes to mind unprompted
* Dream interpretation: analyze hidden meaning in dreams
Biological Perspective: treatment w/ medicine and psychosurgery
* Psychoactive medications:
* Anti-psychotics: decrease dopamine Side effects: TARDIVE DYSKINESIA: hand tremors (due to lack of dopamine)
* Treats schizophrenia
* Anti-depressants: increase serotonin and /or norepinephrine through REUPTAKE inhibition.
* Anti-anxiety drugs: increase GABA
* Lithium: “mood stabilizer” for Bipolar
* Other Interventions:
* Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): send electricity to induce minor seizures. Used (rarely) to treat depression (when nothing else works). Thought to “reboot” the brain
* Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomy): frontal lobe is surgically destroyed. Used to treat depression or violent individuals – almost never used anymore
* Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): targeted magnetic fields to stimulate brain activity
* Treats depression (safer form of ECT)
Humanistic Perspective: focus on person
* Person-centered therapy: encourage client to discover own solutions & understand self through -
* Active listening – thoughtfully engaging w/ clients emotions and message (shows interest, asks questions, restates)
* Unconditional pos. regard – acceptance of faults
* Cognitive Perspective: fixes neg. thinking
* Focus on the Cognitive triad –
* Neg. views about self (I’m defective)
* Neg view about world (its cruel)
* Neg view about future (hopeless)
* Fix w/ Cognitive restructuring: learn to identify disordered thinking and change it
* Behavioral Perspective: applied behavioral analysis – applies classical /
* operant conditioning to fix behvs
* Systematic desensitization: associate a pleasant relaxed state w/ gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli (create a desensitization hierarchy – ex. List of things about flying that makes you nervous – step through each one till you can do it)
* Aversive conditioning: associate an unpleasant experience (e.g. nausea) w/ an unwanted behavior (e.g. drinking alcohol)
* Biofeedback: receive feedback on heartrate, blood pressure, learning to control it to help w/ anxiety and depression
* Token economies: use behavior modification (reward good behaviors w/ token reinforcers to be exchanged)
Combined Perspectives – Cognitive Behavioral therapy:
* Dialectical behavior therapy: talk therapy, adapted for intense emotions, help ppl understand how thoughts affect emotions and behvs – originally for personality disorders, adapted for depression / anxiety
* Rational-emotive therapy: identify unhealthy thought / behavior patterns and replace w/ new
Other Techniques:
* Group therapy: therapy w/ a group – gives diverse perspectives, supportive environment w/ like ppl – lacks indiv. Care
* Hypnosis: used for pain control and anxiety – does not retrieve memories or cause regression