AP Psychology Ultimate Guide Notes

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

Techniques to Learn About Structure and Function

• Paul Broca (1861): Discovered Broca's area in the frontal lobe linked to speech production (expressive aphasia).
• Carl Wernicke: Identified Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe linked to language comprehension (receptive aphasia).
• Lesions: Precise brain tissue destruction to study loss of function.
• Split Brain Studies: By Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga, showed hemispheric specialization.
• Imaging Techniques:
  • CT scans show brain slices to locate lesions.
  • MRI uses magnetic fields for detailed brain images.

Measuring Brain Function

• EEG: Records brain waves; evoked potentials are responses to stimuli.
• PET: Indicates metabolic activity via color graphics.
• fMRI: Shows brain activity through blood oxygen changes.
• MSI/MEG: Detects magnetic fields from brain activity.

Organization of the Nervous System

• Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Somatic and autonomic systems.
  • Somatic: Controls voluntary muscles.
  • Autonomic: Controls involuntary muscles; includes sympathetic (activates fight/flight) and parasympathetic (calms body).

The Brain

• Evolutionary Model: Reptilian (brainstem), old mammalian (limbic system), and new mammalian (neocortex).
• Localization & Lateralization: Functions divided across brain hemispheres; association areas for higher functions.
• Plasticity: Brain's ability to adapt post-injury.

Neurons

• Structure: Neurons consist of cell body, dendrites, axons with myelin sheath for faster transmission.
• Neurotransmitters: Include dopamine (movement, alertness), serotonin (mood, emotion), and norepinephrine (attention, learning).
  • Agonists & Antagonists: Affect neurotransmitter activity.

Reflex Action

• Reflex Arc: Pathway involving sensory, interneurons, and motor neurons.

The Endocrine System

• Comprises glands secreting hormones influencing various bodily functions.
  • Includes pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries/testes.

Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology

• Behavioral Genetics: Studies gene-environment role in traits.
• Genetic Disorders: Turner syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, Down syndrome.
• Transmission of Traits: Involves dominant and recessive genes.

Consciousness

• Levels: Preconscious, nonconscious, unconscious.
• Sleep & Dreams: Includes REM and non-REM stages; factors like circadian rhythms.
• Sleep Disorders: Insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea.
• Hypnosis & Meditation: States of altered consciousness, used for relaxation and therapy.

Psychoactive Drugs

• Drug Effects: Includes dependence, withdrawal; categories are depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens.

Unit 2: Cognition

Perception

• Influencing Factors: Emotions, past experiences, environmental factors like culture.
• Visual Processes: Involves psychological and environmental influences.

Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making

• Memory Types: Sensory, short-term, long-term and working memory.
• Cognitive Biases: Affect decisions; includes confirmation bias, functional fixedness.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that streamline decision-making.

Memory

• Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: Key processes in memory formation and recall.
• Forgetting Theories: Decay theory, interference theory.

Unit 3: Development and Learning

Developmental Theories

• Stages of Development: From prenatal to late adulthood, covering physical, cognitive, and social-emotional changes.
• Piaget & Vygotsky: Cognitive development theories; Vygotsky's zone of proximal development.

Social and Emotional Development

• Attachment Theory: Secure vs. insecure attachments affect relationships.
• Erikson's Psychosocial Stages: Covers challenges across lifespan.

Language Acquisition

• Stages: Babbling, one-word, two-word stages.
• Theories: Chomsky's LAD, behaviorist, interactionist theories.

Learning Processes

• Conditioning: Classical (Pavlov) and operant (Skinner).
• Observational Learning: Bandura's studies on modeling behavior.

Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

Attribution Theory

• Internal vs. External Attributions: How we explain behavior.
• Biases: Actor-observer bias, fundamental attribution error.

Attitude Formation and Change

• Stereotypes & Implicit Attitudes: Influence perceptions and decisions.
• Cognitive Dissonance: Leads to attitude change when beliefs and actions conflict.

Social Institutions and Group Dynamics

• Roles and Norms: Influence behavior in societies.
• Group Processes: Groupthink, polarization, social loafing.

Theories of Personality

• Psychodynamic (Freud): Id, ego, superego; defense mechanisms.
• Humanistic (Rogers, Maslow): Focus on self-actualization and personal growth.

Motivation

• Theories: Drive-reduction, incentive, arousal theories.
• Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic: Differences in motivation sources.

Emotion

• Theories of Emotion: Focus on physiological and cognitive aspects.
• Emotion Regulation: Strategies to manage emotions.

Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health

Stress and Health

• Stressors: Daily hassles, major life events, catastrophes.
• Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused and emotion-focused coping.

Psychological Disorders

• Anxiety Disorders: GAD, phobias, panic disorders.
• Mood Disorders: Major depression, bipolar disorder.
• Eating Disorders: Anorexia, bulimia, binge-eating disorder.
• Treatment: Psychotherapy (CBT, psychoanalysis), biomedical therapies.

Mind-Body Connection

• PNI: Interaction of psychological processes, nervous and immune systems.
• Lifestyle Factors: Influence on health and well-being.
• Positive Psychology: Practices to enhance happiness and well-being.

These notes provide a comprehensive overview of critical concepts in AP Psychology, covering biological, cognitive, developmental, social, and health-related topics essential for understanding human behavior and mental processes.