Lecture Notes: Introduction to Philosophy

Epistemology

• Definition: The study of knowledge and truth; explores how we know what we know.
• Key Concepts:
  • Justification of beliefs.
  • Types of knowledge:
    • A Priori: Knowledge gained through deduction.
    • A Posteriori: Knowledge gained through observation.
• Sources of Knowledge:
  • Perception
  • Memory
  • Introspection
  • Inference
  • Testimony

Ethics

• Definition: The philosophy of morals and values; explores concepts of good and bad.
• Major Branches:
  • Meta-Ethics: Defines what is goodness; questions the nature of good vs. bad.
  • Normative Ethics: Explores moral obligations and what people ought to do. Examples include:
    • Legalizing abortion
    • Branches of Normative Ethics:
      • Virtue Ethics: Focuses on moral character; practicing good leads to becoming a good person.
      • Deontology: Certain actions are inherently good or bad regardless of outcomes (e.g., lying).
      • Consequentialism: Moral value based on outcomes; actions are judged by their consequences (e.g., utilitarianism).
• Utilitarianism: An action is good if it leads to the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Logic

• Definition: The study of reasoning and forming arguments.
• Types of Logic:
  • Formal Logic: Focuses on the structure of arguments; uses premises and conclusions.
  • Informal Logic: Deals with the validity of arguments and logical fallacies; includes inductive and deductive reasoning.
    • Example of Deductive Reasoning: 1 + 1 = 2.
    • Example of Inductive Reasoning: Inferring the next number in a sequence (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14).

Metaphysics

• Definition: The study of reality and existence.
• Key Questions:
  • Do humans have free will?
  • What defines identity?
  • Nature of time and space.
• Explores concepts of souls, abstract entities, life, and death.

Aesthetics

• Definition: The philosophy of art and beauty.
• Key Questions:
  • Are judgments of art objective or subjective?
  • What constitutes art?
  • Do natural occurrences count as art?
  • Determining good vs. bad art: Artist vs. audience perspective.
• Related Theories: Art Theory, Literary Theory, Film Theory, Music Theory.

Existentialism

• Definition: Philosophy questioning the meaning of life.
• Key Concepts:
  • Existence Precedes Essence: Life's meaning must be created by the individual.
  • Absurdism: The illusion of control over life outcomes; existence lacks inherent meaning.
  • Concepts of Bad Faith (inauthentic living) vs. Authenticity (living according to one's values).

Political Philosophy

• Definition: Study of how society should be organized and governed.
• Topics of Interest:
  • Governments, laws, liberty, justice, authority.
  • Questions include the purpose of government and the legitimacy of political powers.
• Schools of Thought: Liberalism, Conservatism, Anarchism, Capitalism, Socialism, Libertarianism.

Philosophy of Religion

• Definition: Study of concepts and arguments associated with religion; not confined to any one religion.
• Key Concepts:
  • Polytheism: Belief in many gods.
  • Monotheism: Belief in one God.
  • Atheism: Lack of belief in God.
• Explores interpretation of religious texts and the compatibility of omniscience with free will.
  • Rational Theism: Belief in God supported by evidence.
  • Irrational Theism: Belief without evidence (faith).
  • Irrational Atheism: Belief in opposition to evidence for theism.