chapter four is going to be a more in-depth look into carbohydrates so to start off with we want to look at the building block of carbohydrates and the different ways that they can be categorized carbohydrates are made of building blocks called monosaccharides or just saccharides and when we put more than one of them together we end up with different categories of carbohydrates so we have disaccharides which is two units of monosaccharides linked together and then we have polysaccharides which is when we have more than 10 linked together and we're going to go ahead and take a look at each one of these categories and what each one of them involves now going on to our monosaccharides for monosaccharides we have three of them glucose which is what we call our blood sugar when you get your blood sugar tested they're testing for how much glucose is in your bloodstream the next one is fructose this is what we refer to as fruit sugar because it's the one that's most commonly found in fruits it is naturally occurring in fruits it can also be added to other foods but naturally it occurs primarily improves and then lastly we have galactose galactose is actually one that's not commonly found on its own in any kind of food it is more part of disaccharides and polysaccharides now this over here is showing us how the different monosaccharides look again we have fructose glucose and galactose you don't need to know how to draw these or the exact chemical makeup but I do want you to notice a couple of things first one is the atoms that compose carbohydrates carbohydrates are made of only carbon hydrogen and oxygen another thing to notice is just to take a look at the structure in general because when we want to link more than one monosaccharides together to develop a disaccharide or a polysaccharide we're going to be working with these structures so just for you to get a little familiar with what they look like now we mentioned joining more than one together to form disaccharides these disaccharides that we have are three starting off maltose which is when we linked to glucose units together sucrose is when we linked glucose and fructose together this one is the one that we refer to as your table sugar the sugar that you added to your coffee that's sucrose and then the last disaccharide is lactose lactose is when we combine galactose and glucose together we just said that galactose isn't usually found on its own that's because it's usually as part of lactose and lactose is what we refer to as our milk sugar it's the one that's most commonly found in our dairy products now we're gonna go ahead and take a look at how we join these individual units together to form disaccharides and the terms for them joining them together is called condensation and then breaking the units apart is called hydrolysis but I'm gonna go ahead and show you what these two terms really mean so before we get into the details of that the first thing that you need to be familiar with is bonds that each atoms have and what I mean by that is that each atom has a unique number of bonds that will always retain so hydrogen can only ever have one bond it can't have 0 it can't have two it always has to have one oxygen always has to have two bonds it's impossible for it to have three nitrogen always has three bonds and carbon always has four now that we've discussed the different bond requirements I want to go ahead and show you guys how this is gonna be beneficial in understanding what monosaccharides need to do in order to become a disaccharide so just for simplicity's sake we're gonna draw up a simple structure and just pretend that this is a monosaccharide a monosaccharide is more complex than this you can see exactly what it looks like in the next slide but just for having a simple structure to demonstrate this process we're gonna pretend that this is a monosaccharide and we want to go ahead and link it together with another monosaccharide in order to form a disaccharide and if you take a look each one of the atoms in this structure has its bond requirement met carbon has its four bonds like it's supposed to each hydrogen only has one bond like it's supposed to and the oxygen has its two bond requirements as well same thing goes for our second one o saccharide this one has all of its bond requirements in that as well so now we have two monosaccharides that we want to link together to form a disaccharide so in order to do this we would need to add a bond between them so that they are linked together and are now one unit instead of two individual units now that being said this wouldn't really work because if you take a look this hydrogen already had its bond requirements met it used its one bond to attach to oxygen it doesn't have the capacity to have a second bond in order for it to use it to attach to this structure here same thing goes with this hydrogen this hydrogen is only able to have one bond like all hydrogen's do and it used it to attach to this oxygen so we can't just add an extra bond in there because then it would disturb the bond numbers and that's not something that can actually happen hydrogen can't carry more than one bond so it wouldn't be able to just add a second bond and link them together so instead what we would have to do is remove some of the atoms so that we can free up the bonds that are there and use the existing bonds to attach them to each other so I'll show you guys what I mean for example we can go ahead and remove this hydrogen here and that way the oxygen doesn't have to use its second bond to attach to hydrogen we can just use the second one to attach it to our second mono Sakura so as you can see we extended the bond now oxygen has its second bond attaching to our second monosaccharide and so that worked we were able to remove the hydrogen free up that bond and now this side of the structure is able to have its bond requirement fulfilled while still bonding to our monosaccharide but if we take a look at this side this wouldn't work for this side of the structure because the hydrogen on this monosaccharide is still carrying two bonds when that is not even feasible remember hydrogen's can only have one bond and it already used its hydrogen to attach to this oxygen so it's not capable of having another bond attaching it to our first one Oh sacré so what we would need to do is what we did the first time which is remove more atoms so that we are freeing up more bonds and can link them together now the way that the body is going to do this is using a simple process called condensation condensation is when we make water we know water is made out of h2o two hydrogen's and an oxygen so if we were to use the atoms from these structures to make water we would have to take two hydrogen's and an oxygen so by making water we are freeing up three bonds again because we are removing two hydrogen's and an oxygen we are freeing up those bonds and that should usually be sufficient enough for whatever we are trying to do and so because of this anytime we need to link two things together the body will go ahead and perform a condensation make that will allow us to free up some bonds so that can then link together so let's go ahead and take a look at how that would happen in order for us to make water we need h2o we already removed one hydrogen let's take that second hydrogen and then we need oxygen so now we have h2o or water now we've used those atoms up so they're no longer part of the structure so let's go ahead and remove those and see what we're left with now after we remove those two hydrogen's and oxygen this is what we have left so if we wanted to go ahead and add a bond to link them together now let's go ahead and see if that would work this oxygen has two bonds one linking it to the first one Oh saccharide the other bond linking it this way that works oxygen is supposed to have two bonds so that would be fine we'd look at this structure carbon has four bonds and remember carbon is allowed to have four bonds it's supposed to have four bonds and so this would work on this side as well so as you can see after we performed condensation we had removed enough atoms that there was room to add in a bond to hold them together without having to disturb that bond balance or the bond requirement and again this is gonna be something that will happen any time we need to link two things together in this case we are pretending that these are monosaccharides but it doesn't even have to be carbohydrates it could be linking together protein structures fat structures or really anything in the body anytime we need to link two things together we need to remove some atoms first so that there is room for that one to come in without disturbing the bawd numbers and so keep this in mind we're gonna see it in the upcoming chapters you want to remember that anytime we want to link two things together we need to perform condensation first now the other thing is we now have our disaccharide but let's say that we wanted to go ahead and split it into a into the two monosaccharides again so we're just gonna go ahead and remove that bond so that we have two individual structures again two monosaccharides but if you take a look this wouldn't work either because that bond that was holding them together was fulfilling their last bond requirement that bond was giving carbon its fourth bond now that we removed the bond that held them together carbon only has three bonds same thing with the structure over here oxygens second bond was the one that held it together with the other monosaccharides since we removed that bond to split them apart now oxygen only has one bond so if we want to split something apart we can't just remove the bond because we need to replace that bond with something else in order to keep that bond requirement fulfilled and the way that we're gonna do this is just reverse what we did in the first place because remember before we made water these two monosaccharides were able to exist on their own and had all of their bond requirements fulfilled so if we just add water back we can go ahead and fulfill those bond requirements again so let's take a look at how that would work we can go ahead and add one hydrogen here now this structure is fulfilled again oxygen has two bonds like it's supposed to hydrogen has one bond like it's supposed to so we're good on that side now water is h2o so we still have one more hydrogen and an oxygen to use so we're gonna go ahead and add them to this side and if you take a look we have fulfilled the bond requirement here as well carbon now has its fourth bond met oxygen is supposed to have two bonds it has those and hydrogen is supposed to have one bond it has its one bond so by adding water back in the two structures are able to exist alone as individual monosaccharides while still having their bond requirements fulfilled if we just removed the bond then the bond requirements would not have been fulfilled and those two wouldn't have been able to stand on their own now that we added water in bond requirements are fulfilled again and they can stand on their own the process that we just described is called hydrolysis this term that you see up here hydro stands for water lysis always means splitting something apart so literally what the word means is using water to split something apart and that's exactly what we did in order to successfully split the disaccharide and still have the bond requirement met we had to add water back in after removing that bond and that's gonna also be the case no matter what it is that we're splitting apart so here we were splitting a disaccharide into two monosaccharides but if we were doing the same thing with protein fat or any other structure we would use the same process we would have to add water back in to split them apart so again keep this in mind we're gonna stay it over and over again you want to remember that in order to link two things together we need to perform condensation which is when we make water in order to split two things apart we need to perform hydrolysis which is when we add water now this slide shows us the same thing with the actual monosaccharides structures so remember what we drew up on the previous slide isn't exactly what a monosaccharide looks like we just used it to demonstrate it in a simple way but this here is showing you what why don't actually look like and what happens when they join together so you can see at the top we have two glucose units coming together and in order for them to join together to form our disaccharide maltose we needed to create water first we needed to take those two hydrogen's and oxygens and make water and that allowed us to join them together at the bottom you see us breaking maltose into two died two monosaccharides and what you see happening here is once we break that bond they can't exist on their own without having something else fill that bond requirement and the way we're going to do that is by adding water back in so again this is the same thing we just covered so if it looks a little scary don't worry about it as long as you understand the concept that we discussed in the previous slide then you're good to go for hydrolysis and condensation this is just showing you the technical structures but all I want you to understand is that in order for two things to come together like two monosaccharides to make a disaccharide we need to perform condensation in order to split something apart like going from a disaccharide into two monosaccharides we need to perform hydrolysis now we're going to go ahead and take a look at some of the larger structures of carbohydrates which are the polysaccharides palak polysaccharides are when we have more than 10 units of monosaccharides linked together and we have three main types that we listed which were glycogen starch and fiber so we're going to go ahead and look at the first use since they are very similar to each other which are glycogen and starch glycogen ours and starch are the way that we store glucose so in our body we have glucose units that are sitting around in our bloodstream remember we said that our glucose is our blood sugar now your body tries to maintain a certain amount of glucose in your bloodstream the rest that it doesn't need right now it is going to want to store away and so it's going to link all those extra glucose units from what you ate it's going to link them together and that long chain is what we call glycogen so glycogen is just a long string of glucose units strung together and it is the way that our body stores excess glucose now this is the same concept in starch except starch is the way that plants store extra glucose now this over here is a picture showing us what these two types of polysaccharides look like so we have glycogen on the Left which is just a bunch of glucose units linked together the blue units are glucose and then on the right hand side we have two different types of starch that can be found in foods and each of them again even though they look different they are still a bunch of glucose units linked together now fiber is the last one that we haven't discussed just yet but if you take a look at the starch that is in the middle of the screen fiber it looks very much like this in terms of having a bunch of strings lined up on top of each other now the only difference is that fiber also has some vertical bonds that holds each row of glucose units together so the starch that you see in the middle we have several rows of glucose units on top of each other with fiber we would also have vertical bonds holding each of these rows to each other and the thing about that is that as humans we don't have the enzymes necessary to break these different bonds that fiber has and so since we don't have the enzymes to break fibers bonds we actually can't digest it fully and for this reason we also can't absorb it so fiber is something that is not fully digestible in humans now there are several different ways that fiber is categorized depending on its role its type but for this class we're going to focus on two main types which are the soluble and insoluble fibers soluble are ones that are dissolvable in water so if you think about for example let's say we take a cup of water and add some flour to it that flour will kind of somewhat dissolve in the water or absorb that water and it'll create kind of like a paste that is similar to what soluble fiber does it absorbs the water around you or kind of dissolves into it now insoluble fiber is the opposite it just sits around in the water so for example if you had that same cup of water and then you put a few rocks in there the rocks are not going to absorb any of the water they're gonna stay suffer as a separate entity and so that's what insoluble fibers do and because of their different properties they actually have different roles in the body the soluble fiber is something that is really beneficial if somebody is suffering from watery stools like diarrhea because soluble fiber remember we said can absorb water so as the fiber passes through your digestive system even though it's not going to be digested and absorbed what it will do is it will absorb the excess water as it passes through your digestive system and so if somebody has diarrhea this can help resolve that diarrhea now insoluble fiber we said is not going to absorb water so this is going to be something that can be beneficial for someone who is suffering from constipation because it's just going to add bulk to the stool and help push things along you Fiber has a lot of other benefits besides just regulating your digestive system and one of those main benefits is reducing your risk of heart disease in order to understand how it does this one thing that you need to know is that bile is made of less strong recall that bile is the digestive juice that is made in your liver and sent to your gall bladder for storage and then when we need fat to be emulsified that bile is sent over to our small intestine now what usually happens is after the small intestine uses that bile to emulsify fat and our fat is able to be digested it can actually recycle the bile by reabsorbing it into the small intestine and then the blood can pick it up and transport it around again so we can actually use the same bile over and over and over again or emulsifying a bunch of different fat that we eat over time now now that we know how that works in terms of how bile is recycled and made of cholesterol we're going to go ahead and look at how that actually connects to heart disease and one thing to know is that the higher your cholesterol levels the higher your risk of heart disease so if we can actually force our body to keep making a nubile instead of just recycling the old one then that could be really beneficial for us because instead of the cholesterol just hanging around in our body causing damage and leading to heart disease it can instead be converted into something beneficial like bile but our body unfortunately just keeps your cycling the same old biome now what we can do to prevent the body from recycling the same bile and force it to use the extra cholesterol and make new bile is consuming a lot of fiber in particular so however now the reason that this works is because remember fiber is indigestible so it's kind of like this indigestible mesh that basically just moves along through your digestive system until it is released out of your body when you use the restroom but because it's indigestible as this indigestible mesh goes through your digestive system other things can get caught in it and those things can end up leaving your body along with the fiber when you use the restroom now if you have fiber as a regular part of your diet one thing that can happen is that the bile in your body can be trapped in the fiber and so when you use the restroom and you release the fiber the bile is also released now what happens in that scenario it is your body is now forced to make new bile since it no longer has the other bile that it was recycling remember bile is made of cholesterol so when your body has to make new bile it's gonna use if your cholesterol that lowers the amount of cholesterol hanging around in your body which will lower your risk of heart disease so again just to recap fiber is an indigestible mesh that can trap things along with it as it leaves your body if you have fiber as a regular part of your diet some of the bile in your digestive system can get trapped in the fiber and leave your body when you use the restroom this forces your body to make new bile and it makes this file from cholesterol if we are using the cholesterol to convert it to bile it's no longer hanging around in our system causing a risk of heart disease so that is a way that fiber can actually reduce your risk of heart disease now this hair is a diagram of how fiber lowers cholesterol so it's what we just talked about starting off from the left where it says in the liver bile is made from cholesterol so remember the liver makes bile and then it sends it to the gallbladder for storage and we know now that the liver uses cholesterol to make file now usually it does the said just every once in a while because as you can see when we need bile the gallbladder is going to send it to the small intestine and then in the small intestine violets will do its job which is emulsifying our fats and then as you can see written on the arrow it says file is reabsorbed into the blood that's what we were referring to earlier when we said that bio can be recycled so it does its job in the small intestine and then it gets reabsorbed into the body so that it can continue for the next time when we need bile now the last section that you see there at the very bottom with the arrow going downwards it says that in the colon the colon is your large intestine bile that has been trapped by soluble fibers is excreted in your feces so what that means is as the indigestible fiber is making its way through your digestive system passing the small intestine the large intestine and making its way to your rectum to be released when you use the restroom since it's indigestible some of the bile can get trapped in that fiber so when you use the restroom you excrete the fiber along with the bile that was attached to it now if that happens we have to go back to step one where the liver has to make a new bile and in order to make new bile it has to use a cholesterol which is a good thing because if we can take cholesterol and convert it to something beneficial like bile that's gonna be a lot better for us than having a lot of cholesterol hanging around in our bloodstream and raising our risk of heart disease so basically we want to have fibre as a regular part of our diet so that we can continuously track that bile push it out of our system and horse our liver to use up the cholesterol that's hanging around in our blood screen you now fiber can also help with managing diabetes as well as managing your weight and this is going back to the fact that fiber is indigestible so normally your digestive enzymes would be able to make direct contact with the nutrients and break them down and then they would be absorbed into your body but if you have fiber as part of your meal those digestive enzymes are gonna have to go around the fiber since the fiber is indigestible they're gonna have to make a detour and make their way around the fiber in order to reach the nutrients that are digestible and so it kind of slows down digestion in that way because the fiber is in the way of the digestive enzymes and what happens with that is two things one if you are eating carbohydrates and your body's trying to digest the carbohydrates it's going to digest them a lot slower because it has to go around all the fiber and that's a really good thing for people with diabetes because they often have trouble regulating their blood sugar so the slower the carbohydrate units are released into the bloodstream the better and so if we can slowly break down the carbohydrates slowly digest them the person with diabetes is going to be able to much better handle the amount of carbohydrates that are released into their bloodstream another good thing about that is if your food is digested slower that means that you are gonna feel fuller for longer because the food is gonna hang around in your system for longer waiting to be digested and so if you feel fuller for longer you're less likely to snack unnecessarily and you're gonna have a much better chance at managing your weight lastly we have its effects on cancer now cancer is something that is still being studied in relation to fiber but one thing that it can help with is colon cancer in particular and one of the main reasons for that is because that indigestible mesh can catch some toxins that are in your colon as it's moving out of your body and that way those toxins that could have developed a cancer in your colon are no longer sitting there causing damage it basically decreases the amount of time that those toxins have contact with your colon if you are regularly eating fiber the fiber basically does a suite of your colon in a sense now those are all the benefits of fiber but one thing that I want to mention is that getting too much fiber can also be a bad thing you want to make sure that you stick with the recommendations which is about 25 or so grams per day or about 14 grams per thousand calories now if you get too much one thing that can happen is digestive discomfort or abdominal discomfort you can start becoming really constipated especially if let's say you are getting a lot of the soluble fiber that absorbs water you can start to feel really constipated because your body's absorbed all the water in the digestive system so you want to make sure that as you increase your fiber intake you increase your water intake as well and do it slowly so that you can avoid that abdominal discomfort like the diarrhea the constipation the gas whatever it is that you may experience this here is a list of the different types of fiber that you can find in different foods so if you are interested in where you can get soluble or insoluble fiber from you can look at this diagram over here for some more from hm all right now we have talked about all of the different types of carbohydrates now we can get into how those carbohydrates are processed in your body or our carbohydrates digestion we have already talked about this for the most part when we discussed the digestion in general in chapter 3 but here we're going to look at it in just a little bit more detail so one thing that we did study in chapter 3 was salivary amylase we said in your mouth we have the release of salivary amylase which will begin the digestion of carbohydrates and what it is going to be doing is taking the carbohydrates in your food and breaking it down into smaller polysaccharide chains now the next place where we saw carbohydrate digestion was in the small intestine and if you remember we said that the pancreas releases pancreatic enzymes to help assist with the digestion of our nutrients now at the time I said that you didn't need to know the names of them now you do need to go ahead and learn the name of the one that is responsible for carbohydrates and that is pancreatic amylase so again the pancreas releases pancreatic enzymes into the small intestine and one of those pancreatic enzymes is called pancreatic amylase remember the term amylase means that it is a carbohydrate enzyme and pancreatic amylase is going to go ahead and take polysaccharides and break them down even further into disaccharides now lastly one thing that we didn't see at the time were the enzymes that I said were on top of the micro villi so if you remember we said the small intestine has villi or hair like structures all on its surface and then on top of those villi we have even smaller hair like structures called micro villi and on top of those micro villi we had enzymes these enzymes are what we call disaccharide specific enzymes they are the enzymes that are going to finalize our carbohydrate digestion they're gonna break down our disaccharides into monosaccharides but the reason that they're called disaccharide specific enzymes is because there is an enzyme for each disaccharide so I have them listed for you here we have Maltese which is responsible for breaking down maltose sucrase will break down sucrose and lactase will break down lactose finally at this point they have been broken down to the smallest unit which is monosaccharides and they can be fully absorbed now one thing that can happen when this process doesn't happen perfectly is what we call lactose intolerance now lactose intolerance is when people have trouble digesting and processing dairy products or products that have lactose in them and the main reason for this is because these individuals are deficient in the enzyme lactase so we said that the enzyme lactase is responsible for breaking down lactose some people genetically just don't make enough lactase it is different for everybody some people hardly make any at all some people make just a little bit less than the typical individual but either way the lack of this enzyme the lactase enzyme makes it so that they don't fully break down lactose which we find in dairy products and so that's why they end up with that discomfort when they are eating dairy because their body can't fully break down that lactose another thing that is important to understand is how our body regulates the amount of carbohydrates or glucose in our body and we already mentioned glycogen is the way that our body stores excess glucose so when we have more than what our body needs in the moment it will go ahead and form glycogen which is just stringing a bunch of glucose units together and then it will store it in one of two storage places either your liver or your muscles now for the glucose that remains in your bloodstream our body has a way of regulating that as well and that is by using two main hormones insulin and glucagon insulin is a hormone that is going to tell your body when you have too much glucose in the bloodstream it tells your body go ahead and store it away as glycogen we don't need it right now the hormone glucagon does the opposite it tells your body hey we're running low on glucose in the bloodstream we need to that we need a little bit more go ahead and bring it out of storage and put it in the bloodstream so insulin is going to decrease our blood sugar glucagon is going to increase our blood sugar now this over here shows us in picture form how this process happens so we're starting off at the far left where it says number one you just ate a meal that has carbohydrates in it and it has been digested and absorbed into your intestine and now transport it into your bloodstream all of those little blue units or glucose and you'll see that we have quite a bit of glucose at this point in the bloodstream so we want to bring some of that down we don't need all of that glucose hanging around in the bloodstream so we're gonna go ahead and release insulin insulin is released from the pancreas and it's going to tell your body to go ahead and store some of that glucose as a glycogen instead of allowing it to remain in your bloodstream and that's what you see happening there the yellow units that are released are insulin and we're what you see is happening where it says number three is that we are now putting those glucose units together you see that we have strings of glucose that is glycogen so we are taking the individual units and stacking them up as glycogen and then we are storing them into our liver and muscle now one thing that you also see is that it has an arrow going from the liver to your fat cells and that's because we have a limited amount of space to store glycogen if your body doesn't have any more space if we already filled all of our glycogen stores then what's gonna happen is the body is actually going to convert some of that glucose into fat because we have unlimited storage space for that so that can be another bad thing about consuming more than what your body can store is that any excess will be converted to fats all right now going on to number four which is on the top right you'll see that as we have gone on with time we haven't eaten another meal we've got a couple of hours between meals what you see happening now is that our blood sugar is actually dropping we have hardly any more of those blue glucose units in the bloodstream so what your body's going to do is it wants to raise that blood sugar up again and that's the responsibility of glucagon so we're gonna go ahead and release glucagon which is also released from the pancreas it's what you see in green and glucagon tells your liver to go ahead and break down the glycogen into individual glucose units and send it back into your bloodstream and now as you can see we have a lot more blue glucose in the bloodstream and our blood sugar has gone up now the reason that your body tries to regulate your blood glucose so tightly is because it's really important for your body's ability to function your body's preferred fuel source is actually cool coast which means when your body needs energy for anything it will go to glucose first to fuel itself now most of your body parts can actually use other things for fuel if glucose isn't available but things like your brain and your red blood cells actually require glucose they can't function off of anything but glucose so it's very very important for your body's ability to function now if you didn't have enough glucose what your body can do in these situations is make glucose from a different source which is what we call gluconeogenesis gluconeogenesis is when we make glucose from a non carbohydrate source usually from protein but the problem with this is that our body doesn't really store excess protein it doesn't have a storage space for protein like we store glucose as glycogen we don't have that kind of storage space for protein and so what actually happens is if we're going to use protein to make glucose in our body we're going to go to our protein structures like our muscles we're going to break down our muscles take the protein from there and convert that to glucose so even though we can make glucose that way it's not something that we want to do we want to make sure that we're giving our body the glucose that it needs especially to fuel our brain and our red blood cells now if you didn't give your body the carbohydrate that's needed what it would do for the rest of the body that can run off of something else is make what we call ketones ketones are these structures that can be made primarily from the fat in your body and they can replace glucose for the most part and the thing about this is that a lot of a lot of the low carb diets or Atkins diet that do that recommend being really low on your carbohydrate intake they really promote this because if you can limit your carbohydrates so much that your body starts to run off of ketones then basically you're forcing your body to run off of the fat run off with its own class supply because remember ketones are made from fat now the problem for this the problem of this is that ketones are actually extremely acidic and your body actually needs to stay within a certain pH balance in order for it to be able to function if you continue on a low-carb diet and your body continues to build up these ketones then you can end up with what we call ketoacidosis which is when your blood actually shifts and becomes too acidic for you to function so it's not something that we want to do we want to make sure we're going to get off carbohydrates because we don't want to have a buildup of ketones that will affect our blood pH and then also remember our red blood cells and our brain cells can't function off of anything but glucose so for those two things we'll have to make glucose from protein which means also breaking down our muscles so for those two reasons it's not really a good idea to limit carbohydrates to a dangerously low level now for people who have diabetes they have a different issue where they have trouble bringing their blood sugar down for the most part and there are two types of diabetes that we're going to discuss and each of them is dealt with in different ways we have type 1 diabetes which is actually the least common we have less than 10% of the population that has type 1 diabetes and type 1 is the one that is genetic it is the case where these people are what we call insulin deficient that means that their body does not make enough insulin and the reason for this is because they have an autoimmune disease where their body destroys the cells of the pancreas that make insulin remember we said that the pancreas makes and releases insulin those cells in the pancreas that are responsible for that are destroyed because the body views them as something bad and porn and so they no longer make enough insulin and remember insulin is something that helps to bring down your blood sugar and store a way to access so these people who have type 1 diabetes suffer from not having enough insulin so they need to inject themselves with insulin people who have type 2 diabetes have a different type of scenario they don't have an insulin deficiency they suffer from what we call insulin resistance which means that they have enough insulin but their body is just resistant to it it's not responding to it for some reason and this is because the people who have type 2 diabetes have dulled their insulin receptors basically we have receptors on our cells that recognize insulin and tell the body to respond to it if these receptors are not functioning you have a bunch of insulin in your body and your body doesn't know that so it doesn't respond to the insulin and these people with type 2 diabetes have that problem their receptors aren't working and this is usually associated with a bad diet and being overweight or obese and this is the main one that we have especially in the u.s. is the type 2 diabetes that is something related to primarily your diet and your weight so what they have found is that as you gain weight there is something that happens to your receptors in that process of gaining weight something happens to those receptors that causes them to malfunction and so for individuals who become overweight and obese a lot of their receptors stop functioning and because of that they become resistant to the insulin that their body produces so for these individuals injecting themselves with insulin isn't going to help because the problem isn't a lack of insulin they already have enough insulin the problem is their body not responding to it so they have to handle their insulin in a different way which is basically trying to make it easier on their body to handle carbohydrates by managing the amount that they eat spreading it out throughout the day sometimes if necessary taking medication as well so type 1 is the genetic one that is insulin deficient and you take insulin for that type 2 is the more common one it is not genetic it is more related to weight and bad diet and it is insulin resistance one other problem that can come from carbohydrates is dental cavities or dental caries and the main reason for this is because when you eat carbohydrates the carbohydrates can mix with the bacteria that naturally occurs in your mouth and form an acid normally if you're just eating let's say a piece of bread or drinking a soda the carbohydrates are gonna go straight down your throat because you're gonna swallow it and mean immediately and so that acid doesn't have time to form and really sit on your teeth to cause decay but if you're eating something that leaves a sticky residue or that's gonna stick in your mouth for a long time like sucking on a lollipop or chewing gum those are things that have carbohydrates in them that stay in your mouth for a long time and the whole time that they're in your mouth the acid is also in your mouth sitting on your tea and so that is something that can cause dental cavities or dental caries to form one way to avoid this is to decrease the amount of sugar that you consume and using other types of sweeteners such as artificial sweeteners or sugar alcohols artificial sweeteners things like for example Splenda are things that have a bad rap because they are thought to cause health problems but with studies that have been done they actually have not found that artificial sweeteners are bad for you they have done studies that initially put out inflammation that it was bad for your memory or increased risk of cancer etc but when they actually looked at the validity of this study they found that the studies weren't very valid for example they were injecting amounts with as much sweetener as a human body would consume on a daily basis and if you compare the amount of sweetener that is to the size of a mouse it is extremely excessive anything that you would consume in that much excess is going to cause damage to your body and there is no way that a human could possibly consume that larger amount of an amount when you compare the body sizes so when they adjusted that dosage down to what would be an even ratio between a human's body size and the mouse's body size they actually found no adverse effects and other studies again had similar results as well where when they tested the validity there were nothing there were no significant results so as of now the FDA actually does recommend artificial sweeteners can be part of a healthy diet can be part of a weight management program accused in moderation now another thing that you could also use is what we call sugar alcohols these are things that are often found in sugar free products especially should or freed them and the reason for this is because they actually do not cause those cavities to form because when sugar alcohols mix with the bacteria in your mouth they don't form an acid and so they are usually what are used for gum these days once the gum manufacturer's realized that chewing the gum was causing the acid to sit on the teeth and erode the teeth they all pretty much eliminated sugar and started using sugar alcohols instead that way you can safely chew the gum without worrying on acid being on your teeth the whole time so anytime you see a gum that says sugar free it's usually made with sugar alcohols now those still contain a little bit of calories but they don't contain as much as carbohydrates do and again they have the benefit of not causing dental caries or cavities