The Industrial Revolution

Introduction

Europe's global prominence rose through colonization in the Americas.
The Industrial Revolution marked the apogee of European power, impacting agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, economic policies, and social structure.
Despite later being eclipsed by superpowers like the United States and Russia, the Industrial Revolution's trends were crucial to their rise.
The revolution had significant economic and social impacts globally.

Global population increase from 375 million (1400 AD) to 1 billion (early 19th century).
Emerging energy crisis, notably in Western Europe and Asia.
Scarcity and high cost of industrial fuels (wood, charcoal) pushed for new fuel sources.
Early phases aimed to solve the energy crisis, later expanded beyond this purpose.

Shift from renewable energy (wind, water, wood, muscle) to non-renewable fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas).
Key development: coal-powered steam engine.
Enabled greater energy availability, spurred new industries in manufacturing and transportation.

Discovery of Fossil Fuels and Rise in Machinery
- Development and impact of machinery powered by fossil fuels.
Industrialized Manufacturing
- Changed the way people worked and lived.
- Focus on British leadership in 18th and 19th centuries.

Debate among scholars on why Europe's Industrial Revolution began in Britain.
Traditional explanations are Eurocentric and lack credit to specific circumstances.
Current research highlights two key factors:
1. Economic Competition and Technological Innovation Encouragement: Europe comprised of small states, leading to economic competition. Monarchies formed alliances with merchants, growing technological innovation.
2. Global Trade Network: Europe's global trade network provided access to ideas, technologies (China, Ottoman Empire), and global resources (slave labor, silver).

Early 18th century: Britain's scarcity of fuel led to increased use of coal.
Thomas Newcomen (1712): Created the first practical steam engine.
James Watt (1781): Improved Newcomen's design, leading to the Watt steam engine.
Watt's separate condenser and rotary motion adaptation broadened machine usage.

Textile Industry Pre-1760:
- Home-based, labor-intensive, inefficient.
- Known as the 'putting-out' system.
Mid-18th Century Changes:
- Invention of labor-saving devices like the spinning jenny (James Hargreaves, 1760s).
- Introduction of steam-powered machines (1784).
- Factory production replaced home-based production.
- Factories had poor conditions, low wages for women and children.

Urbanization: Movement from countryside to cities.
- Examples: Liverpool's population growth (1800: 77,000; 1850: 400,000).
- By 1851: Majority of Britain’s population lived in towns and cities.
Industrialized Cities: Overcrowded, polluted, poor living conditions.
- Average life expectancy dropped to 39.5 years by 1850.

Huge increase in output of goods and services.
- Britain: Industrial output increased 50 times (1750–1900).
Acceleration in technological innovation.
Middle Class Growth:
- Benefitted most from industrialization.
- Diverse roles: bankers, merchants, factory owners, professionals.
- Politically sought more voice; Reform Bill of 1832 expanded middle class voting rights.
- Culturally valued thrift, hard work, respectability.
- Women became homemakers, modeling middle-class values.
Working Class:
- 70% of population, manual workers in mines, factories etc.
- Suffered most from poor working and living conditions.
- Formed friendly societies and unions for better conditions.
Karl Marx and Socialism:
- Marx observed miserable industrial conditions, advocated for socialism.
- Predicted industrial capitalism's collapse, revolution for a classless society.
- Inspired global socialist movements and labor parties (e.g., Labour Party in Britain).

Spread to the United States, Russia, Japan, and later to Asian, Latin American, and African countries.
First industrialized war: American Civil War (1861).
Continuation and evolution of industrialization into the early 20th century.