in the name of Allah the most merciful the most compassionate blessings and mercy of God be upon his Prophet Muhammad peace be upon you all this is a lecture dedicated to second year Perez per am students for the Academic Year 2022 3 at the level of the teachers higher College talabad Rahman in Lego at Algeria in the medial that is entitled introduction to linguistics first and foremost as a revision when we say Linguistics it is a noun but refers to a discipline and it is derived from language language linguistic adjective Linguistics now first of all what is linguistics Linguistics is defined is agreed a pen to be defined as the scientific study of language a question what is meant by scientific when we say scientific we refer to an adjective that is derived from a noun science what is science science not in contrast but in reference to knowledge what is the difference in between knowledge and science science is apart is a part of knowledge any knowledge needs to become science needs three conditions the first condition is called the field of research or the subject of study the subject of study in medicine for example the subject of a study is the human body whereas in linguistics the subject of study is human language is a human language before we moved forward the definition of language is mandatory language is what is a set of sounds words utterances gestures interjections body movements facial expressions that are used within a specific community in order to communicate this is the aim of language is communication with the previously mentioned elements to the first condition which is field of research or subject of study which is human language sometimes we cannot well know identify human language without referring to animal language it is important to make a kind of comparison in between the two or contrast mean why we will come back to this point comparison and contrasting between human and animal language so we move forward towards the second condition which is theoretical background what is meant by theoretical background a theoretical background is the raw material or the all the previously tackled aspects made by carried out investigated in by researchers and field specialists that means theories hypothesis attempts Endeavors that were all pouring in the same stream of this field of knowledge that is science theoretical background oh it is called in other words literature review the third condition that must be present that is related to science as the scientific method when you say the scientific method here we mean several steps that are compulsory to be followed in order to be working with guidelines that are necessary for every science first of all is observation or identification of the phenomenon or the problem so beforehand these steps are as we have said related to research so what is meant by a research a research as an academic activity that adds new aspect New Angle new part to the already existing stock of knowledge so it is an academic activity that means an academic activity process that is carried out usually inside an academic official institution within a lab Laboratory or something that looks like for the availability of all the necessary materials and equipments this is academic academic activity that adds something new when we say new so here newness novelte is important for any academic research if you or if we don't bring something new in one way or another so here we can talk about a research we just merely talk about an expose an expose when you say inexposite that means a given person tries to make an attempt in order to gather in order to amass results of others so Mr Rex has carried This research Mrs y has also carried This research and found those findings those results in a kind of comparison contrast exposure this is not a research this is just a an expose this is just an expose so an academic research is is the one that says uh linked to newness to novelty to novelty so uh back to the point so observation identification of the problem identification of the problem and then make an what is called hypothesis hypothesizing we do hypothesize four to Main Ames the first aim is to give the next explanation to the phenomenon why is this phenomenon the way it is why what is the interpretation this is yeah this is the this is the why the other way of hypothesizing as to suggest a therapy a remedy a treatment a solution a solution and then we move towards uh crucial step which is which is destined or experimenting usually usually when you talk about experiments we talk about quasi for example or any other type in which we have control group and an experimental group that means a group which is meant to control the other the other one the other one which is the field which is the raw material which is the at which as the sample on which the experiment is going to be carried out and then when implementing the the strategy of the re of the experiment of the research then by the end we are going to make a kind of comparison or contrast in between the controller group and the experiment group and then we would say whether our hypothesis have been validated approved or disapproved and of course we may we may as we may not talk about this depends on the nature of the research on uh reliability of the results then we may talk about theories or uh we may uh have it considerate as many other hypotheses that that are still debatable like for example the sapir roof hypothesis which is still uh considered to be a thorny topic that is uh in a diet for more elaboration and more discussion uh so these are the three main conditions related to scientificness of linguistics Linguistics is a science that means it has three conditions first one is the subject of a study which is language human language in particular and then we have uh uh the theoretical background or literature review and thirdly we have the scientific method through its uh main mandatory steps back to the point that is related uh to animal language so when we talk about human anatom language in a way of contrast or comparison we would say that human language has several characteristics several distinctive features mainly mainly it is it is evolutionary that means it is developing that means it is in a way to evolve to develop to change from one generation to another maybe less than a period of generation which is really about to be about 33 years so evolutionary developmental so where's the animal language is constant why constant because it is basically linked utterly related to daily biological needs food danger and the like but human language is related to all the various aspects of life so that we may refer to a lot to a cultural transfer to discipline to displacement to what is mentioned by Nam Chomsky creativity added to productivity So when you say productivity and creativity which is defined in the in the reference written by John Lyons language and linguistics of course segregated by Noam Chomsky creativity and productivity when we say productivity that means from a finite set of utterances we get we produce we generate a finite yeah a finite a limited set of utterances so from us from a finite set of rules we derive a finite set of of utterances it means it's clear for everyone not enough for everyone but we are talking about Specialists men and women of the field so whereas when you talk about creativity so here it is something different it's something different from productivity that means we have a finite set of rules from which we have an infinite number of utterances yeah but here the nature of utterances the nature of utterances all the utterance that is related to creativity has the feature of has two features the feature of an illness and the feature of Conformity of the already to the already existing rules so is to create is to bring out new utterances that have not been encountered before but not encountered before that means in you and they conform to the already existing rules so this is creativity productivity you have a set of rules for example we have 50 rules and you may have by the end the output 50 utterances but in creativity you have the 50 rules you have the 50 rules out of which you might have not only 50 you may have 55 or 53 utterances those additional utterances have the feature of newness and Conformity to the already working functional rules so this is this is uh one main aspect of the human language when compared to animal language so we have also Duality human language human language as a spoken and written so whereas whereas the animal language is basically relying on sounds on sounds on sounds uh uh other features related to human language we may refer here is the fact that it is it is having the the feature of cultural transfer cultural transfer so cultural transvestments from one generation to another uh of course this is uh as has already been mentioned related to the change in all the conditions that are working in harmony within a specific speaking community so talking about Linguistics as a science has just had just emerged early at the beginning of the 20th century so talking about the 1907 till the year 1911. in this period in this period the star students of the founder of linguistics Ferdinand D so sewer those star students amassed gathered his lectures that were delivered that were presented by him at the level of the University of Geneva Switzerland but they were just published in the year 1916. through a masterpiece that is entitled good linguistic General course and linguistics that General course of linguistics was a kind of revolutionary Linguistics a revolution in linguistics how was that a revolution that made certain changes certain changes in the field of linguistics the first change the first principle of this change is that language is self-sufficient language or Linguistics is meant to study language in itself for itself language is a social fact so these two points in particular these two points in particular can be contrasted can be compared to the previously dealt with principles during the traditional grammar era in which language was dependent on philosophy on logic and language was not really independent so with the coming of this author language now as self-sufficient study a language in itself for itself we may refer here to certain characteristics related to traditional grammar and Armature Armature grammarians so basically before the emergence of linguistics as an independent science there was the talk about about Armature grammarians first of all what is meant by armchair grammarins armchair Minds were men and women of of language of a grammar the main concern was not to study language as a whole but to just focusing on grammar so grammar is important but it is not the whole business as described by one of the Specialists saying with grammar and less can be conveyed with the community everything can be conveyed that means they were focusing just on a grammar on writing they excluded speaking they focused on translation and a main feature was the centrality of the teacher this is of course associated with the GTM grammar translation method which was the first teaching approach here approach approaches meant as meant to refer to the theory so we have approach which is purely theoretical method is the how to apply the theory and technique is a purely concrete practical so another feature related to the traditional grammar areas item centered that means elements of language were studied in isolation and isolation there was also immanence of long what is meant by immanence of long that means uh only rules only mainly rules language study was restricted to rules long means long means the abstract system the abstract system so that that is that is why the uh the uh that era of traditional grammar was meant to be prescriptive that means we're just in a way to prescribe so the don'ts and the do's do this do that do not do this do not do that this was the main tenet the main principle other another Point related to that era was that chronic studies that means language phenomena were studied Through Time that means the accumulation of all the uh the views and all the descriptions and all the analysis through time of Any Given phenomenon in contrast with the coming of the social so especially through the full dichotomies yeah there were certain new aspects which were added which were added to the previous lay found principles new new parameters a new criteria were added to the already existing principles and some were rejected let's start with those which were which were completed not rejected so here we have the addition that was identified that was proposed by this author was the synchronic studies when we say this in chronic studies not in contrast but in a complementary view with the dicronic studies synchronic studies synchronic zinc alike Cronus chronic Chronos that means at the same time is to study a language phenomenon at a specific point in time whether this point is at the present or past it is unlike the dicronic studies that were meant to study language through time that means a kind of a holistic View but here with the identification of these synchronic studies so is to study a particular phenomenon at a specific point in time whether this point is at the present or in the past so what is the difference in between study and specific specific phenomenon at a specific point in time at the present or in the past at the present it is agreed upon to be a preferable let's say choice so when we study a specific phenomenon at a present that means all the necessary let's say ingredients all the necessary circumstances are attend at the reach of the researcher that means that they are accessible able to be compared contrasted identified analyzed and alike at the present synchronic at a specific point in time also with limiting the scope of a study in such a phenomenon in the past gives a kind of easiness for the researcher in order to reap satisfactory results so this is what is what is brought by what was brought by this also at the level of time so as a kind of a complimentary view to the dichronic studies so here having the synchronic ones this is identified as as a dichotomy the second dichotomy which is meant uh to be uh uh a complementary aspect to the already existing principle in the within the traditional grammar era was so long and parole long as we have said previously long is the abstract system is the set of rules that has already been existed during the era so abstract rules written rules in particular but with the coming of the social now it is the valorization of speech as we have said previously that speaking was utterly excluded so when we have now is the concrete realization of long long is the system parole is the concrete realization of the system this is something important to be mentioned as a a dichotomy when you say a dichotomy of course die that means having two faces of the same coin so long and parole long is the is the first coin which is the rules the basket of rules principles and pahod is the concrete realization so here it is the theory and practice meanwhile at the same time like time we have dichronic through time and synchronic at a particular point in time whether that point is at the present or in the past the third dichotomy that was brought by this author of course it is said to be the most clear the clearest sorry the clearest and the most prominent the most prominent the most prominent uh prove that makes structuralism uh attractive let's say when we say that it is the most attractive dichotomy so we are talking about paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations relations so during the the previous era we had item-centered analysis so now with structuralism we have structure based analysis meaning no language element no language element has a value in isolation without being referred to the other elements of the language and here within this dichotomy we may know clearly that that there is the notion of relay relationalism so we start with paradigmatic relations when we say paradigmatic relations we are talking about the paradigm so we had Paradigm paradigmatic that means the relations that occur in between elements of different sentences for example we have the sentence Peter writes a message so Peter here is the subject so we may replace the subject with its opponent within the second sentence having he wrote or he has written a message so Peter and he that means here we have the relation in between Peter and he Peter is the noun and he is the pronoun so of course we do know that the subject may be a noun or an adjective noun or an article adjective noun or an adjective article an article adjective noun the connector and a noun so in the form of a noun a phrase yeah so that means here the the the possibility of exchanging exchanging a given element whether this element is uh as is a subject or is a verb or as an object this possibility is called paradigmatic relation it is called the vertical relation vertical relation in between language elements that uh are found with different sentences so we have these relations in between in between subjects nouns verbs and pronouns we may also find these relations existing within within words within words semantically speaking semantically speaking for example when we have a bad bad milk we say it is a curdled milk when we have a bad meat we say rotten rotten milk as it is mentioned by the American poet Benjamin Franklin said he once said if you don't want to be forgotten as soon as you are dead and rotten either right thanks word read and oh do things were the writing we may also have these relations existing in between in between let's say uh sounds or what is called technically phonetically speaking phonemes phoneme which is the smallest unit of sound for example we have the three words we have put and cut and not for example so the three initial let's say letters are interchangeable that means the second and the third are the same the Utah the UT and the UT so the difference is just n the the the initial letters so this these are called predigmatic relations now talking about the second phase of the coin of the dichotomy which is syntagmatic so when we say syntax magic we are talking about syntax we are talking about the arrangement of elements within the same sentence as we have said the previous line so the grid epan the conventional order is subject verb object subject verb object unlike the Arabic language in which we have the subject verb object over the uh the verb subject object so the subject with its different forms noun adjective now on article adjective noun article adjective noun uh connector now and the like the different so here we have a subject that is in relation with the verb despite the nature of this verb whether this verb is conjugated in the simple present or in a in a simple tense or in this integmatic relation so here The Logical logical agreed apparent relations in between the subject verb subject verb an object so this is a chain of of the let's say of the combinatorial let's say relations that exist in between the elements of the same sentence unlike the relations that exist in between the different sentences within pragmatic relations so here we may stop and postpone talking about the remain and the remaining dichotomy brought by this obser as a novelty as a reaction to the already existing principles during the traditional grammar area thank you for your kind intention and hopefully we would meet next occasions thank you