Themes in Indian History - Theme Two

Developments After the Harappan Civilisation

• Following the Harappan civilisation, several developments occurred over 1,500 years.
• Key Developments:
  • Emergence of agricultural settlements across subcontinent including North India, Deccan Plateau, Karnataka.
  • Evidence of pastoral populations in Deccan and South India.
  • New burial practices with megaliths in Central and South India.
• From the 6th century BCE:
  • Emergence of early states, empires, kingdoms.
  • Changes in agricultural production organization.
  • Emergence of new towns.
• Historians use inscriptions, texts, coins, visual material to understand these developments.

Kings, Farmers and Towns

Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE)

• Epigraphy: Study of inscriptions.
• James Prinsep (1830s): Deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, linking inscriptions to King Asoka.
• Sixteen Mahajanapadas:
  • Mentioned in early Buddhist and Jaina texts.
  • Notable among them: Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, Avanti.
  • Ganas or Sanghas: Oligarchies, power shared by several men.

Inscriptions

• Engraved on stone, metal, pottery.
• Record achievements and donations.
• Earliest in Prakrit language.

Importance of Magadha

• Rise of Magadha (6th - 4th centuries BCE):
  • Productive agriculture, access to iron mines, elephants for the army, strategic rivers.
  • Influential kings: Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Mahapadma Nanda.
• Capital Shift: From Rajagaha to Pataliputra for strategic control.

Early Empire: The Mauryas

• Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 BCE): Founded Mauryan Empire.
• Asoka's Reign (c. 272/268-231 BCE): Known for dhamma inscriptions promoting moral governance.
• Administration:
  • Major centers: Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri.
  • Use of multiple languages: Prakrit, Aramaic, Greek.

New Notions of Kingship

• Post-Mauryan Developments:
  • Emergence of regional powers like Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas.
  • Kushanas, depicted as divine, used titles like devaputra.
  • Gupta Empire: Use of prashastis to praise kings and illustrate divine status.

Changing Countryside

• Agricultural Changes:
  • Introduction of plow agriculture in fertile regions.
  • Use of iron tools and transplantation techniques for increased productivity.
  • Irrigation developments like wells, tanks, and canals.
• Social Differentiation: Landless laborers, small peasants, large landholders.

Towns and Trade

• Urban Centers: Emerged around c. 6th century BCE, often located on trade routes.
• Trade Networks:
  • Extensive trade routes within subcontinent and overseas.
  • Use of coins like punch-marked silver and copper.
• Craft Guilds and Urban Elites: Included weavers, carpenters, merchants.

Deciphering Inscriptions

• Decipherment Techniques:
  • James Prinsep's work on Brahmi and Kharosthi.
  • Coin comparisons aided understanding of Kharosthi.

Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

• Challenges:
  • Technical issues, loss over time, incomplete records.
  • Focus on grand events, often ignoring daily life.
  • Need for corroboration with other sources.

Important Timelines

• Political and Economic Developments: Key events from c. 600 BCE to 647 CE.
• Advances in Epigraphy: Decipherment and publication efforts from the 18th century onward.