Basic Study Guide
🧠 Chapter 12: Social Psychology
Situationism vs. Dispositionism
* Situationism: Behavior is influenced by the environment/situation.
* Dispositionism: Behavior is influenced by internal traits (personality, temperament).
Fundamental Attribution Error
* Overestimating someone's personality traits and underestimating situational influences when explaining their behavior.
Just-World Hypothesis
* Belief that people get what they deserve (e.g., blaming victims).
Self-Serving Bias
* Taking credit for successes but blaming outside factors for failures.
Social Roles, Norms, and Scripts
* Roles: Expected behavior in a given context (e.g., student).
* Norms: Rules for behavior (e.g., don’t interrupt).
* Scripts: Expected sequence of events in a situation (e.g., how to act at a restaurant).
Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment
* Showed how social roles (guard/prisoner) can lead to extreme behavior.
Cognitive Dissonance
* Discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs/behaviors → motivates change in attitudes or actions.
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
* Persuasion method: get a small "yes" first, then ask for a bigger favor.
Conformity and Asch Effect
* Changing behavior to match the group.
* Asch’s Experiment: People gave wrong answers just to conform.
Milgram’s Obedience Experiment
* Participants obeyed orders to give electric shocks because of authority presence.
Groupthink
* Desire for harmony leads to poor decisions and ignoring alternatives.
Group Polarization
* Group discussion strengthens the dominant view.
Attraction
* Influenced by proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness, and reciprocity.
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
* Love = intimacy + passion + commitment (varies by type of love).
Social Exchange Theory
* Relationships involve a cost-benefit analysis; we aim to maximize rewards.
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💼 Chapter 13: Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Industrial vs. Organizational Psychology
* Industrial: Hiring, job analysis, performance.
* Organizational: Motivation, leadership, workplace culture.
Human Factors Psychology
* Designing tools/workspaces for safety and ease of use.
Army Alpha and Beta Tests
* WWI intelligence tests used for job placement in the military.
Hawthorne Effect
* Workers improve performance when they know they are being observed.
Job Analysis
* Task-oriented: What tasks the job involves.
* Worker-oriented: What skills/abilities a person needs.
Structured vs. Unstructured Interviews
* Structured: Same questions for all.
* Unstructured: More flexible, informal.
U.S. Workplace Laws
* EEOC: Prevents discrimination.
* Equal Pay Act: Equal pay for equal work.
* Title VII: Protects against race/sex/religion discrimination.
* Pregnancy Discrimination Act.
* Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).
Douglas McGregor – Theory X vs. Y
* Theory X: People are lazy, need control.
* Theory Y: People are motivated, seek responsibility.
Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership
* Transactional: Rewards/punishments to manage workers.
* Transformational: Inspires and motivates employees to grow.
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😰 Chapter 14: Stress, Lifestyle, and Health
Stress Definitions
* Stimulus-based: Stress = something that causes stress.
* Response-based: Stress = how we respond.
Eustress vs. Distress
* Eustress: Positive stress (e.g., before a race).
* Distress: Negative, harmful stress.
Cognitive Appraisal
* How we interpret stress:
* Challenge = I can handle this.
* Threat = This is too much for me.
Fight or Flight (Cannon)
* Body’s immediate reaction to perceived danger.
General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye)
* 3 stages:
1. Alarm
2. Resistance
3. Exhaustion
Holmes & Rahe’s Stress Scale
* Measures stress from life events (e.g., divorce, moving).
Physiology of Stress
* Sympathetic Nervous System: Increases heart rate, energy.
* HPA Axis: Hormonal system involved in long-term stress.
* Cortisol: Stress hormone; too much is harmful.
Personality & Heart Disease
* Type A: Competitive, impatient → more risk.
* Type B: Relaxed → less risk.
Coping Styles
* Problem-focused: Fix the issue.
* Emotion-focused: Deal with feelings.
Learned Helplessness
* Giving up after repeated failures.
Stress Reduction
* Exercise, relaxation, support, time management.
Mindfulness
* Focus on the present moment with awareness and acceptance.
Positive Psychology
* Study of strengths, happiness, resilience.
Flow
* Full immersion in a task (being “in the zone”).
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🏳️🌈 Chapter 17: Sexuality and Gender
Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation
* Sex = biological.
* Gender = identity.
* Orientation = who you're attracted to.
Natural Variation
* Differences in identity and orientation are biologically normal.
Cultural Gender Norms
* Expectations for men/women vary by society.
Biological Evidence for LGBTQ+
* Brain structure, hormones, and genetics all play roles.
Kinsey Scale
* Sexual attraction exists on a continuum from straight to gay.
Conversion Therapy
* Attempts to change orientation — not effective and harmful.
Masters & Johnson Study
* Observed real sexual activity.
* Found a 4-stage sexual response:
1. Excitement
2. Plateau
3. Orgasm
4. Resolution
Sex in the Brain (Rat Study)
* Separate brain systems control sexual desire and performance.
Dopamine
* Brain’s “feel good” chemical tied to sexual reward.
Consent
* Must be clear, ongoing, and voluntary. No means no.
Sexual Behaviors vs. Paraphilias
* Kinks: Safe, consensual, not harmful.
* Paraphilic Disorders: Harmful, distressing, illegal (e.g., harming others).
Examples of Each Topic
🧠 Chapter 12: Social Psychology
* Situationism vs. Dispositionism
Example: Jamie cuts someone off in traffic. A situationist might say “Maybe Jamie is late for work.” A dispositionist might say “Jamie is a rude person.”
* Fundamental Attribution Error
Example: You assume a classmate who doesn’t speak much is unfriendly, without considering they might just be shy or having a bad day.
* Just-World Hypothesis
Example: Someone says a woman who was robbed “must have been careless,” assuming people always get what they deserve.
* Self-Serving Bias
Example: You get an A on a test and say, “I’m smart!” But if you fail, you say, “The test was unfair.”
* Social Roles, Norms, Scripts
Example: A nurse cares for patients because it’s part of the nurse role (social role). They follow dress code (norm), and follow expected steps during a check-up (script).
* Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment
Example: Volunteers playing guards started treating others badly just because they were given power, showing how roles can influence behavior.
* Cognitive Dissonance
Example: You smoke even though you know it’s bad for your health, so you tell yourself, “It helps me relax.”
* Foot-in-the-Door Technique
Example: A charity asks you to sign a petition (small request), then later asks you to donate money (larger request).
* Conformity / Asch Effect
Example: You know the correct answer in class but say the wrong one because everyone else did.
* Milgram’s Obedience Experiment
Example: A person keeps pressing buttons that "shock" someone just because an authority figure told them to.
* Groupthink
Example: A group of friends agrees to cheat on homework because no one wants to speak out and seem disloyal.
* Group Polarization
Example: A discussion among political extremists makes everyone leave with more extreme views than before.
* Factors Influencing Attraction
Example: You like someone because they’re in your class (proximity), laugh at your jokes (reciprocity), and you have similar interests (similarity).
* Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
Example: A romantic relationship has strong emotional connection (intimacy), physical attraction (passion), and commitment.
* Social Exchange Theory
Example: You stay in a friendship where you give and receive equal support, but drop one where you’re always giving.
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💼 Chapter 13: Industrial-Organizational Psychology
* Industrial vs. Organizational Psychology
Example: A company uses I/O psychologists to improve hiring tests (industrial) and team morale (organizational).
* Human Factors Psychology
Example: A psychologist designs a car dashboard that’s easy to read without looking away from the road.
* Army Alpha/Beta Tests
Example: During WWI, soldiers took intelligence tests to be placed in jobs suited to their skills.
* Hawthorne Effect
Example: Workers improve productivity simply because they know they’re being watched.
* Job Analysis
Example:
* Task-oriented: “Cashier must scan items quickly.”
* Worker-oriented: “Cashier should be friendly and patient.”
* Structured vs. Unstructured Interview
Example:
* Structured: Everyone is asked the same questions.
* Unstructured: The interviewer just chats and asks different questions.
* EEOC and Workplace Laws
Example: A woman gets equal pay to her male coworkers for the same job due to the Equal Pay Act.
* McGregor’s Theory X/Y
Example:
* Theory X boss: “Employees are lazy; I must control them.”
* Theory Y boss: “People want to work; I’ll support and guide them.”
* Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership
Example:
* Transactional: “Meet the sales goal, and you’ll get a bonus.”
* Transformational: “Let’s inspire the team to build a better product.”
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😰 Chapter 14: Stress, Lifestyle, and Health
* Stimulus vs. Response-Based Stress
Example:
* Stimulus-based: Final exams = stress.
* Response-based: “I feel anxious and tired.”
* Eustress vs. Distress
Example:
* Eustress: Nervous energy before a competition.
* Distress: Being overwhelmed by bills and work.
* Challenge vs. Threat Appraisal
Example:
* Challenge: “This test is tough, but I’m ready.”
* Threat: “I’m going to fail.”
* Fight or Flight
Example: Hearing a loud bang at night makes your heart race — your body prepares to run or fight.
* General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye)
Example:
* Alarm: Panic before an exam.
* Resistance: Staying up late to study.
* Exhaustion: Burnout after finals.
* Holmes & Rahe Stress Scale
Example: Moving, marriage, and job changes add up to a high stress score.
* Sympathetic Nervous System
Example: Your heart races and you sweat when you’re nervous.
* HPA Axis / Cortisol
Example: Chronic stress at work causes high cortisol, leading to fatigue and health issues.
* Type A vs. B
Example:
* Type A: Always working, gets angry easily → higher heart risk.
* Type B: Takes things slowly, more relaxed.
* Problem vs. Emotion-Focused Coping
Example:
* Problem-focused: Make a study schedule.
* Emotion-focused: Watch a movie to feel better.
* Learned Helplessness
Example: A student keeps failing math tests and eventually stops trying altogether.
* Stress Reduction
Example: Meditation, journaling, walking, or breathing exercises.
* Mindfulness
Example: During meditation, you notice your thoughts without judging them and return to your breath.
* Positive Psychology
Example: Focusing on gratitude, strengths, and well-being.
* Flow
Example: You lose track of time while painting or writing because you’re so engaged.
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🏳️🌈 Chapter 17: Sexuality and Gender
* Sex, Gender, Orientation
Example: Alex is born male (sex), identifies as female (gender), and is attracted to men (orientation).
* Natural Variation
Example: Some people are born intersex or identify outside of male/female categories — and that’s normal.
* Cultural Gender Norms
Example: In some cultures, men wear skirts as traditional clothing. What’s “normal” for one group may differ for another.
* Biological Evidence for LGBTQ+
Example: Studies show some brain structures differ between straight and gay individuals.
* Kinsey Scale
Example: A person may feel 80% attracted to one gender and 20% to another — not strictly one or the other.
* Conversion Therapy
Example: Programs trying to make gay people straight — discredited and harmful.
* Masters & Johnson’s Study
Example: They directly observed couples to learn about the body’s sexual response cycle.
* Sex in the Brain (Rats)
Example: Scientists removed certain brain areas in rats and found some lost desire while others still performed sexual acts — meaning different brain parts control different things.
* Dopamine
Example: When someone hugs or kisses someone they love, dopamine levels rise — creating pleasure.
* Consent
Example: Consent must be clear and can be withdrawn at any time. Silence is not consent.
* Kinks vs. Paraphilic Disorders
Example:
* Kink: Consensual BDSM with a safeword.
* Paraphilic Disorder: Forcing non-consenting individuals or harming self/others.
Practice Quiz
1. What is the main idea behind situationism?
a) Personality drives behavior in all settings.
b) Internal traits are the root of all actions.
c) Behavior is influenced more by the situation than personal traits.
d) Everyone behaves consistently regardless of the environment.
2. Dispositionism suggests that:
a) Our choices are completely random.
b) Behavior stems mainly from external pressures.
c) People's actions are driven by internal traits and personality.
d) Social context shapes all decisions.
3. The fundamental attribution error happens when people:
a) Explain others' behaviors based on personal characteristics while ignoring the situation.
b) Blame others' behavior on external circumstances.
c) Accurately describe both internal and external causes.
d) Judge their own behavior too harshly.
4. The just-world hypothesis refers to the belief that:
a) All people are fundamentally good.
b) Bad things happen to good people without reason.
c) People get what they deserve in life.
d) The world is chaotic and unfair.
5. What is a self-serving bias?
a) Blaming others for your failures.
b) Taking credit for successes but blaming failures on external factors.
c) Always putting yourself first.
d) Taking responsibility for others' actions.
6. Social norms are:
a) Written laws people must follow.
b) Unspoken rules for how to behave in social settings.
c) Instructions given by teachers.
d) Part of biological instincts.
7. Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment showed:
a) People behave violently by nature.
b) Obedience to authority is always harmful.
c) People conform quickly to social roles even when it leads to harm.
d) Groupthink cannot occur in controlled settings.
8. Cognitive dissonance occurs when:
a) You change your beliefs to match your friends.
b) Your thoughts and actions conflict, causing discomfort.
c) You always agree with authority.
d) You feel good about your decisions.
9. The foot-in-the-door technique involves:
a) Asking for something big right away.
b) Starting with a small request to get agreement on a bigger one later.
c) Forcing people to agree with you.
d) Guilt-tripping someone into doing something.
10. Solomon Asch's conformity experiment revealed that people:
a) Always stick to their own opinions.
b) Change their answers to match group consensus, even if it's wrong.
c) Never give in to social pressure.
d) Are more accurate in groups.
11. Milgram’s obedience experiment showed:
a) People naturally resist harming others.
b) Most people disobey authority when it's unethical.
c) People are highly obedient to authority, even to the point of harming others.
d) Obedience is unrelated to ethics.
12. Groupthink is when a group:
a) Engages in healthy debate.
b) Prioritizes harmony over realistic decisions, avoiding dissent.
c) Always follows the leader’s advice.
d) Splits into smaller decision-making units.
13. Group polarization means:
a) Group members reach compromise.
b) Opinions become more extreme after group discussion.
c) Individuals become more open-minded.
d) Groups become disorganized.
14. Sternberg’s triangular theory of love includes:
a) Intimacy, passion, and commitment.
b) Respect, power, and loyalty.
c) Friendship, trust, and stability.
d) Affection, emotion, and admiration.
15. According to social exchange theory, people stay in relationships when:
a) They’re afraid to leave.
b) The rewards outweigh the costs.
c) They have no other options.
d) Love is unconditional.
16. Industrial psychology focuses on:
a) Work environments and culture.
b) Improving therapy and counseling.
c) Hiring, training, and evaluating employees.
d) Group behavior in offices.
17. Organizational psychology focuses on:
a) Technical skills of workers.
b) Office design and ergonomics.
c) Motivation, job satisfaction, and leadership.
d) Legal policies at work.
18. The Army Alpha and Beta tests were designed to:
a) Measure personality traits.
b) Test soldiers’ fitness levels.
c) Assess mental ability during WWI.
d) Evaluate emotional resilience.
19. The Hawthorne Effect refers to:
a) The tendency to work harder when being watched.
b) Natural worker laziness.
c) Poor lighting lowering productivity.
d) A type of job interview technique.
20. Theory X and Theory Y describe:
a) Biological stress responses.
b) Types of personality.
c) Management views of workers.
d) Hiring and firing policies.
21. The fight-or-flight response is controlled by:
a) The frontal lobe.
b) The digestive system.
c) The sympathetic nervous system.
d) The parasympathetic nervous system.
22. What is the HPA axis responsible for?
a) Promoting sleep.
b) Regulating hunger.
c) Managing the body's long-term stress response.
d) Digesting food quickly.
23. What does eustress refer to?
a) Negative stress that causes harm.
b) Any stress that leads to emotional breakdowns.
c) Positive, motivating stress.
d) Stress from lack of sleep.
24. What did Masters and Johnson study?
a) Effects of media on sexuality.
b) Sexual development in children.
c) Human sexual response by directly observing behavior.
d) Sexual disorders in prison populations.
25. Consent is defined as:
a) Silent agreement between people.
b) A legal form signed before any interaction.
c) Clear, informed, and voluntary agreement to participate in a sexual act.
d) Something that can’t be withdrawn once given.
Answers
1. C
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. C
8. B
9. B
10. B
11. C
12. B
13. B
14. A
15. B
16. C
17. C
18. C
19. A
20. C
21. C
22. C
23. C
24. C
25. C